Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vfjqv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T01:31:44.727Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Criminalizing Violence against Women in Politics: Innovation, Diffusion, and Transformation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2020

Juliana Restrepo Sanín Open the ORCID record for Juliana Restrepo Sanín [Opens in a new window]
Juliana Restrepo Sanín*
Affiliation:
University of Florida
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Violence against women politicians is increasingly recognized as an issue that undermines women's presence in politics. Latin America has been at the vanguard of this global discussion. In 2012, Bolivia became the only country in the world to criminalize “political violence and harassment against women.” Several other countries have similar legislation in the works. What explains the emergence of these bill proposals? This article argues that the creation of these bills is the result of three processes: activism at the local level used international norms to propose an innovative solution to a problem; women politicians and “femocrats” worked within the state apparatus to overcome resistance; and international actors worked to foster connections among activists and politicians across the region. In this process, international norms have been transformed, with important implications for women's political representation.

Keywords

Violence against women in politicspolicy diffusiongender-based political violenceinternational norms transformationLatin America
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , March 2022 , pp. 1 - 32
Copyright
Copyright © The Women and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This article has benefited from the insightful comments from the Politics & Gender editors and three anonymous reviewers that helped me strengthen my argument. I also want to thank Mona Lena Krook, Ann Towns, Kendall Funk, Laura Sjoberg, Aida Hozic, Elizabeth Corredor, Haley Norris, Rebecca Kuperberg, Mary Nugent, Christopher W Shay, Rachel Epstein, and the participants at the Korbel Research Seminar (Josef Korbel School of International Studies) for their valuable advice and comments on earlier drafts. All errors are mine.

References

REFERENCES

Acharya, Amitav. 2004. “How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism.” International Organization 58 (2): 239–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acosta López, Juana I. 2012. “The Cotton Field Case: Gender Perspective and Feminist Theories in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights Jurisprudence.” International Law: Revista Colombiana de Derecho Internacional 21: 17–54.Google Scholar
Alanis, Maria del Carmen. 2017. “Yo fui víctima de violencia política por ser mujer” [I was a victim of political violence because I am a woman]. El Universal, March 19. https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/entrada-de-opinion/articulo/maria-del-carmen-alanis/nacion/2017/03/19/yo-fui-victima-de-violencia (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Albaine, Laura. 2017. “Marcos Normativos Contra El Acoso Y/O Violencia Política En Razón De Género En América Latina” [Normative frameworks against gender-based political violence and harassment in Latin America]. In Cuando Hacer Política Te Cuesta La Vida. Estrategias Contra La Violencia Política Hacia Las Mujeres En América Latina [When doing politics costs you your life: Strategies against violence against women in Politics in Latin America], eds. Freidenberg, Flavia and del Valle Pérez, Gabriela. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, 117–43.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Sonia E. 1990. Engendering Democracy in Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Sonia E., Friedman, Elisabeth Jay, Beckman, Ericka, Blackwell, Maylei, Chinchilla, Norma Stoltz, Lebon, Nathalie, Navarro, Marysa, and Tobar, Marcela Ríos. 2003. “Encountering Latin American and Caribbean Feminisms.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28 (2): 537–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arboleda, Maria. 2012. “Apoyo al Fortalecimiento Del Consenso de Quito Para El Empoderamiento de Las Mujeres” [Support for the strengthening of the Quito Consensus for women's empowerment]. https://iknowpolitics.org/sites/default/files/estudio_avp_ecuador_abril_2012.pdf (accessed April 29, 2020).Google Scholar
Baldez, Lisa. 2001. “Coalition Politics and the Limits of State Feminism in Chile.” Women & Politics 22 (4): 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldez, Lisa. 2002. Why Women Protest: Women's Movements in Chile. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballington, Julie. 2018. “Turning the Tide on Violence against Women in Politics: How Are We Measuring Up?” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 695–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardall, Gabrielle. 2011. “Breaking the Mold: Understanding Gender and Electoral Violence.” White paper, International Foundation for Electoral Systems, December. https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/gender_and_electoral_violence_2011.pdf (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Bardall, Gabrielle, Bjarnegård, Elin, and Piscopo, Jennifer M.. 2019. “How Is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts.” Political Studies. Published online December 3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjarnegård, Elin. 2018. “Making Gender Visible in Election Violence: Strategies for Data Collection.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 690–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonder, Gloria, and Rodríguez, Lilia. 2009. “Foro Virtual Con Especialistas de Género: Informe de Sistematización de Resultados” [Virtual forum with gender specialists: Systematization of results]. http://americalatinagenera.org/newsite/images/781_PP-VirtualForumReport-Final.pdf (accessed April 28, 2020).Google Scholar
Bouka, Yolande, Berry, Marie E., and Kamuru, Marilyn Muthoni. 2019. “Women's Political Inclusion in Kenya's Devolved Political System.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 13 (2): 313–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouvard, Marguerite G. 2004. Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo. Lanham, MD: SR Books.Google Scholar
Carrillo, Betty. 2016. “Proyecto De Ley Orgánica Reformatoria de La Ley Orgánica Electoral, Código de La Democracia Para La Prevención y Sanción Del Acoso Político Motivado En Razones de Género” [Bill proposal to reform the Organic Electoral Law, Democratic Code to prevent and sanction political harassment motivated by gender]. July 28. https://reformaspoliticas.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Proyecto_de_Ley_Acoso_Pol%C3%ADtico_Motivado.pdf (accessed April 20, 2020).Google Scholar
Carroll, Susan J. 2002. “Representing Women: Congresswomen's Perceptions of Their Representative Roles.” In Women Transforming Congress, ed. Rosenthal, Cindy Simon. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 50–68.Google Scholar
Carroll, Susan J. 2006. “Are Women Legislators Accountable to Women? The Complementary Roles of Feminist Identity and Women's Organizations.” In Gender and Social Capital, eds. O'Neill, Brenda Lee and Gidengil, Elisabeth. New York: Routledge, 357–78.Google Scholar
Celis, Karen. 2007. “Substantive Representation of Women: The Representation of Women's Interests and the Impact of Descriptive Representation in the Belgian Parliament (1900–1979).” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 28 (2): 85–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cerva, Daniela. 2014. “Participación Política y Violencia de Género En México” [Political participation and gender-based violence in Mexico]. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales 59 (222): 117–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2000. “Interacting with the State: Feminist Strategies and Political Opportunities.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 2 (2): 244–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2002. “The ‘Femocrat’ Strategy: Expanding the Repertoire of Feminist Activists.” Parliamentary Affairs 55 (1): 85–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childs, Sarah, and Krook, Mona Lena. 2009. “Analysing Women's Substantive Representation: From Critical Mass to Critical Actors.” Government and Opposition 44 (2): 125–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corredor, Elizabeth. 2019. “Unpacking Gender Ideology and the Global Right's Anti-Gender Countermovement.” Signs 44 (3): 613–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, Emma. 2017. “Sexual Harassment of Women Politicians in Japan.” Journal of Gender-Based Violence 1 (2): 205–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, and Simmons, Beth. 2005. “On Waves, Clusters, and Diffusion: A Conceptual Framework.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 598 (1): 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewig, Christina. 2018. “Forging Women's Substantive Representation: Intersectional Interests, Political Parity, and Pensions in Bolivia.” Politics & Gender 14 (3): 433–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FIDA. 2013. “Key Gains and Challenges A Gender Audit of Kenya's 2013 Election Process.” https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Kenya-Gender-Audit-2013-Electoral-Process.pdf (accessed April 20, 2020).Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52 (4): 887–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franceschet, Susan. 2003. “‘State Feminism’ and Women's Movements: The Impact of Chile's Servicio Nacional de La Mujer on Women's Activism.” Latin American Research Review 38 (1): 9–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth Jay. 2003. “Gendering the Agenda: The Impact of the Transnational Women's Rights Movement at the UN Conferences of the 1990s.” Women's Studies International Forum 26 (4): 313–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth Jay. 2009. “Re(gion)alizing Women's Human Rights in Latin America.” Politics & Gender 5 (3): 349–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García-Moreno, Claudia, Jansen, Henrica A. F. M., Ellsberg, Mary, Heise, Lori, and Watts, Charlotte. 2005. WHO Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes and Women's Responses. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Goetz, Anne Marie. 2020. “The New Competition in Multilateral Norm-Setting: Transnational Feminists & the Illiberal Backlash.” Daedalus 149 (1): 160–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Group of Women Parliamentarians of FIPA. 2011. “Political Leadership of Women.” http://parlamericas.org/uploads/documents/Manifesto%20Haiti%20ENG.pdf (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Håkansson, Sandra. Forthcoming. “Do Women Pay a Higher Price for Power? Gender Bias in Political Violence in Sweden.” Journal of Politics.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala. 2003. Sex and the State: Abortion, Divorce, and the Family under Latin American Dictatorships and Democracies. New York. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Htun, Mala, and Weldon, S. Laurel. 2012. “The Civic Origins of Progressive Policy Change: Combating Violence against Women in Global Perspective, 1975–2005.” American Political Science Review 106 (3): 548–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Htun, Mala, and Weldon, S. Laurel. 2018. The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women's Rights around the World. New York. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). 2019. “169th Period of Sessions Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTvWb2BQdoA&list=PL5QlapyOGhXtxcMOpg35GCa2M7dJo_QVh&index=3&t=0s (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA). 2020. “Gender Quotas Database.” https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database (accessed January 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). 2020. “Women in National Parliaments Statistical Archive.” http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm (accessed January 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret E. and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret E. and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. “Transnational Advocacy Networks in International and Regional Politics.” International Social Science Journal 51 (159): 89–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2009. Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2016. “Contesting Gender Quotas: Dynamics of Resistance.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 4 (2): 268–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2017. “Violence against Women in Politics.” Journal of Democracy 28 (1): 74–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2018. “Violence against Women in Politics: A Rising Global Trend.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 673–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2019. “Global Feminist Collaborations and the Concept of Violence against Women in Politics.” Journal of International Affairs 72 (2): 77–94.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2016. “Violence against Women in Politics: Concepts, Debates, and Solutions.” Política y Gobierno 23 (1): 125–57.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2019. “The Cost of Doing Politics? Analyzing Violence and Harassment against Female Politicians.” Perspectives on Politics. Published online July 2. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592719001397.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and True, Jacqui. 2012. “Rethinking the Life Cycles of International Norms: The United Nations and the Global Promotion of Gender Equality.” European Journal of International Relations 18 (1): 103–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuperberg, Rebecca 2018. “Intersectional Violence against Women in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14(4):685–690, http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X18000612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovenduski, Joni, and Baudino, Claudie. 2005. State Feminism and Political Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Machicao Barbery, Ximena. 2004. Acoso Político: Un Tema Urgente Que Enfrentar [Political harassment: An urgent topic to confront]. La Paz, Bolivia: PADEP-GTZ.Google Scholar
McBride, Dorothy E., and Mazur, Amy G.. 2010. The Politics of State Feminism: Innovation in Comparative Research. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Montaño, Gabriela. 2012. Cámara de Senadores 79a Sesión Ordinaria [Chamber of senators: 79th ordinary session]. La Paz, Bolivia: El Redacotr.Google Scholar
Montoya, Celeste. 2013. From Global to Grassroots: The European Union, Transnational Advocacy, and Combating Violence against Women. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Movimiento de Mujeres Presentes En La Historia [Movement of Women Present in History]. 2009. “Mujeres Presentes En La Historia” [Women present in history]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMO2K3IjCY8 (accessed April 29, 2020).Google Scholar
National Democratic Institute (NDI). 2012. “Political Parties in Sierra Leone Pledge Open, Safe, Inclusive Elections.” April 12. https://www.ndi.org/sierra-leone-code-of-conduct (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
National Democratic Institute (NDI). 2016. “#NotTheCost: Stopping Violence against Women in Politics.” https://www.ndi.org/not-the-cost (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Novillo, Mónica. 2011. Paso a Paso. Así Lo Hicimos: Avances y Desafíos En La Participación Política de Las Mujeres [Step by step, that is how we did it: Advances and challenges for women's political participation]. La Paz: Coordinadora de la Mujer. http://soscorpo.org/wp-content/uploads/LibroAvances_89.pdf (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Och, Malliga. 2018. “The Local Diffusion of International Human Rights Norms—Understanding the Cities for CEDAW Campaign.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 20 (3): 425–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Organization of American States (OAS) 2015. “Declaration on Political Violence and Harassment against Women.” Follow-up Mechanism to the Belém do Pará Convention (MESECVI). http://www.oas.org/en/cim/docs/DeclaracionViolenciaPolitica-EN.pdf (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Pando, Amalia. 2016. “Libres e Impunes Los Asesinos de Juana Quispe, Sacrificada Por El Odio Político” [Free and unpunished the killers of Juana Quispe, slaughtered because of political hatred]. March 27. http://amaliapandocabildeo.blogspot.com/2016/03/libres-e-impunes-los-asesinos-de-juana.html (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
ParlAmericas. 2015. “Action Plan for Preventing Political Harassment and Violence against Women.” http://www.parlamericas.org/uploads/documents/Report-Political-Violence-en.pdf (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Piscopo, Jennifer M. 2015. “States as Gender Equality Activists: The Evolution of Quota Laws in Latin America.” Latin American Politics and Society 57 (3): 27–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piscopo, Jennifer M. 2016. “State Capacity, Criminal Justice, and Political Rights: Rethinking Violence against Women in Politics.” Política y Gobierno 23 (2): 437–58.Google Scholar
Piscopo, Jennifer M. 2017. “Leveraging Informality, Rewriting Formal Rules: The Implementation of Gender Parity in Mexico.” In Gender and Informal Institutions, Feminist Institutionalist Perspectives, ed. Waylen, Georgina. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 137–60.Google Scholar
Piscopo, Jennifer M., and Walsh, Denise M.. 2020. “Introduction: Backlash and the Future of Feminism.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 45 (2): 265–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2018a. “The Law and Violence against Women in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 676–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2018b. “The Meaning of Woman: Intersectionality and VAW Laws in Latin America.” Presented at the 114th Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30–September 2, Boston.Google Scholar
Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2018c. “Violence against Women in Politics in Latin America.” PhD diss., Rutgers University.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction.” Cambridge Studies in International Relations 66: 1–38.Google Scholar
Roggeband, Conny. 2016. “Ending Violence against Women in Latin America: Feminist Norm Setting in a Multilevel Context.” Politics & Gender 12 (1): 143–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rojas Valverde, María Eugenia. 2010. Violencia Política En Razón de Género En Bolivia: Un Obstáculo a La Participación Política de La Mujer [Gender-based political violence in Bolivia: An obstacle to women's political participation]. La Paz, Bolivia: One World Action.Google Scholar
Rojas Valverde, María Eugenia. 2012. “Acoso y Violencia Política En Razón de Género Afectan El Trabajo Político y Gestión Pública de Las Mujeres” [Gender-based political harassment and violence affect women's political work and public management]. Revista de Derecho Electoral 13: 248–58.Google Scholar
Rousseau, Stéphanie. 2011. “Indigenous and Feminist Movements at the Constituent Assembly in Bolivia: Locating the Representation of Indigenous Women.” Latin American Research Review 46 (2): 5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salguero, Elizabeth. 2008. Agenda Política Desde Las Mujeres 2008–2011 [Political agenda from women 2008–2011]. La Paz, Bolivia: United Nations.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A., and Elkins, Zachary. 2004. “The Globalization of Liberalization: Policy Diffusion in the International Political Economy.” American Political Science Review 98 (1): 171–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Šimonović, Dubravka. 2018. “Violence against Women in Politics: Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences on Violence against Women in Politics.” United Nations General Assembly, August 6. https://undocs.org/en/A/73/301 (accessed April 20, 2020).Google Scholar
South Asian Partnership (SAP) International. 2006. “Violence Against Women in Politics Surveillance System.” https://www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/PartPol-VAW_Surveillance_SAPI-VAWP_2007_0.pdf (accessed April 20, 2020).Google Scholar
South Asian Partnership (SAP) International. 2007. Invisible Faces of Violence on Women in Politics: Breaking the Silence. Lalitpur: SAP International.Google Scholar
South Asian Partnership (SAP) International, ed. 2009. 2nd South Asian Regional Conference on Violence Against Women in Politics: Combating Violence Against Women in Politics: Revisiting Policies, Politics and Participation: Proceeding Report. Lalitpur: SAP International.Google Scholar
Stark, Evan. 2007. Coercive Control: The Entrapment of Women in Personal Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sternbach, Nancy Saporta, Navarro-Aranguren, Marysa, Chuchryk, Patricia, and Alvarez, Sonia E.. 1992. “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (2): 393–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stratigaki, Maria. 2004. “The Cooptation of Gender Concepts in EU Policies: The Case of ‘Reconciliation of Work and Family.’” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 11 (1): 30–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiban, Lourdes. 2011. “Proyecto de Ley Orgánica Contra El Discrimen, El Acoso y La Violencia Política En Razón Del Género” [Organic Law bill proposal against gender-based discrimination, harassment, and political violence].Google Scholar
Towns, Ann. 2010a. “The Inter-American Commission of Women and Women's Suffrage, 1920–1945.” Journal of Latin American Studies 42 (4): 779–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Towns, Ann. 2010b. Women and States: Norms and Hierarchies in International Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Vleuten, Anna. 2005. “Pincers and Prestige: Explaining the Implementation of EU Gender Equality Legislation.” Comparative European Politics 3 (4): 464–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, Shannon Drysdale, and Menjívar, Cecilia. 2016. “‘What Guarantees Do We Have?’ Legal Tolls and Persistent Impunity for Feminicide in Guatemala.” Latin American Politics and Society 58 (4): 31–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waylen, Georgina. 2007. Engendering Transitions: Women's Mobilization, Institutions, and Gender Outcomes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weldon, S. Laurel. 2002. “Beyond Bodies: Institutional Sources of Representation for Women in Democratic Policy making.” Journal of Politics 64 (4): 1153–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weldon, S. Laurel. 2012. When Protest Makes Policy: How Social Movements Represent Disadvantaged Groups. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Weldon, S. Laurel, and Htun, Mala. 2013. “Feminist Mobilisation and Progressive Policy Change: Why Governments Take Action to Combat Violence against Women.” Gender & Development 21 (2): 231–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weyland, Kurt. 2005. “Theories of Policy Diffusion: Lessons from Latin American Pension Reform.” World Politics 57 (2): 262–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zippel, Kathrin. 2004. “Transnational Advocacy Networks and Policy Cycles in the European Union: The Case of Sexual Harassment.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 11 (1): 57–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zulver, Julia Margaret. 2018. “High Risk Feminism in Colombia: Women's Mobilisation in Violent Contexts.” PhD diss., University of Oxford. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3fc50c53-d6f5-49c9-a3ba-ca68570a78a3 (accessed April 17, 2020).Google Scholar
Zwingel, Susanne. 2005. “From Intergovernmental Negotiations to (Sub) National Change: A Transnational Perspective on the Impact of CEDAW.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 7 (3): 400–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Restrepo Sanín supplementary material

Appendix

Download Restrepo Sanín supplementary material(File)
File 32 KB