Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-gvh9x Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-17T00:30:09.908Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Disorienting Race: Humanizing the Musical Savage and the Rise of British Ethnomusicology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 April 2011

Bennett Zon
Affiliation:
Durham University

Extract

Although definitions of orientalism and racism seldom achieve consensus, the significance of their interplay is universally acknowledged amongst theorists of non-Western cultures. Tony Ballantyne, in his recent Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire, describes their relationship in terms of mutuality, and Ziauddin Sardar, in Orientalism, describes them as ‘circles within circles’. Edward Said, of course, deals with their relationship exhaustively in Orientalism, and describes them as inextricably linked. Writing of the nineteenth century, he suggests that ‘Theses of Oriental backwardness, degeneracy, and inequality with the West most easily associated themselves early in the nineteenth century with ideas about the biological bases of racial inequality.’

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Ballantyne, Tony, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism and the British Empire (Basingstoke, 2002), 14CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

2 Ziauddin, Sardar, Orientalism (Buckingham, 1999), 49Google Scholar .

3 Said, Edward, Orientalism (London, 1978), 206Google Scholar .

4 Bor, Joep, ‘The Rise of Ethnomusicological Sources on Indian Music c. 1780–c.1890’, Yearbook for Traditional Music 20/1 (1988): 51CrossRefGoogle Scholar . The use of the term ‘ethnomusicology’ as applied to work before 1950 is hotly disputed. The term appears to have originated in Kunst's, JaapMusicologica: A Study of the Nature of Ethno-musicology, its Problems, Methods and Representative Personalities (Amsterdam, 1950)Google Scholar , but it is used by many musicologists and ethnomusicologists, such as Bor, loosely to describe work from a much earlier date, in some instances as early as the 1550s. Other sources for this type of usage include Harrison, Frank, Time, Place and Music: An Anthology of Ethnomusicological Observation c. 1550 to c. 1800 (Amsterdam, 1973)Google Scholar ; Blum, Stephen, ‘European Musical Terminology and the Music of Africa’, in Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music: Essays on the History of Ethnomusicology, ed. Nettl, Bruno and Bohlman, Philip (Chicago and London, 1991), 336Google Scholar ; and Myers, Helen, ‘Introduction’, in Ethnomusicology: Historical and Regional Studies, ed. Myers, Helen, The Norton/Grove Handbooks in Music (New York and London, 1993), 315Google Scholar . Helen Myers writes (p. 4) that ‘What we now call ethnomusicology began long before that term was invented’, citing reference to European folk, North American and Chinese music in Rousseau's, Jean-JacquesDictionnaire de musique (1768)Google Scholar , as well as in travel literature, missionary or civil servant reports including Chinese music by Jean-Baptiste du Halde (1735) and Joseph Amiot (1779); Arab music by Guillaume André Villoteau (1809–22) and Raphael Kiesewetter (1842); Indian music by Jones (1784) and Charles Russell Day (1891); and Japanese music by Francis Taylor Piggott (1893).

5 Sir William Jones, ‘On the Musical Modes of the Hindoos: Written in 1784, and since much enlarged, By the President [of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]’, reprinted in Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Hindu Music (Delhi, 1882/1994), 131.

6 Seeger, Anthony, ‘Styles of Musical Ethnography’, in Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music, ed. Nettl, and Bohlman, , 351Google Scholar .

7 Strangways, A. H. Fox, The Music of Hindustan (Oxford, 1914), 181Google Scholar .

8 Bohlman, Philip, ‘Representation and Cultural Critique in the History of Ethnomusicology’, in Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music, ed. Nettl, and Bohlman, , 139Google Scholar.

9 Ibid., 138.

10 Richards, Graham, ‘Getting a result: the Expedition's psychological research 1898–1913’, in Cambridge and the Torres Strait: Centenary Essays on the 1898 Anthropological Expedition, ed. Herle, Anita and Rouse, Sandra (Cambridge, 1998), 148Google Scholar .

11 Myers, Charles Samuel, ‘On the Permanence of Racial Mental Differences’, in Papers on Inter-Racial Problems Communicated to the First Universal Races Congress Held at The University of London July 26–29, 1911, ed. Spiller, G. (London and Boston, 1911), 73–9Google Scholar .

12 Harrison, , Time, Place and Music, 12Google Scholar .

13 Said, Edward, ‘Shattered Myths’, in Orientalism: A Reader, ed. Macfie, A.L. (Edinburgh, 2000), 92–3Google Scholar .

14 Burney, Charles, A General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period. To which is Prefixed, a Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients, 4 vols (London, 1789), 703Google Scholar .

15 Hawkins, John, ‘Preface’, A General History of the Science and Practice of Music (London, 1776)Google Scholar .

16 Stafford, William C., A History of Music (Edinburgh and London, 1830), 6Google Scholar .

17 Ibid., 7.

18 Farrell, Gerry, Indian Music and the West (Oxford, 1997/1999), 10Google Scholar .

19 Ibid., 25.

20 Jones, , in Tagore, , Hindu Music, 157Google Scholar .

21 Middleton, Richard, ‘Music Studies and the Idea of Culture’, in The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction, ed. Clayton, Martin, Herbert, Trevor and Middleton, Richard (New York and London, 2003), 2Google Scholar .

22 Ibid., 3.

23 Nettl, Bruno, The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Concepts (Urbana and Chicago, 1983), 133Google Scholar .

25 Cook, Nicholas, A Very Short Introduction to Music (New York, 1998/2000), 127Google Scholar .

26 Dibben, Nicola and Windsor, Luke, ‘Constructivism in Nicholas Cook's introduction to music: tips for a “new” psychology of music’, Musicae Scientiae, Discussion Forum 2, 2001, 43–4Google Scholar .

27 Johnson, Julian, Who Needs Classical Music? (New York, 2002), 80CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

28 Bohlman, , in Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music, ed. Nettl, and Bohlman, , 138Google Scholar .

29 Magli, Ida, Cultural Anthropology, trans. Sethre, Janet (Jefferson, NC and London, 1980/2001), 1Google Scholar .

30 Marcus, George E. and Fischer, Michael M.J., Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences (Chicago and London, 1986), ix–xGoogle Scholar .

31 Herzfeld, Michael, Anthropology: Theoretical Practice in Culture and Society (Malden, MA, 2001), 152Google Scholar .

32 Honigmann, John J., The Development of Anthropological Ideas (Homewood, IL, 1976)Google Scholar .

33 Geertz, Clifford, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz (London, 1973/1975), 67Google Scholar .

34 Ibid., 10.

35 Jahoda, Gustav, Images of Savages: Ancient Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture (London and New York, 1999), 910Google Scholar .

36 Lorimer, Douglas A., ‘Race, science and culture: historical continuities and discontinuities, 1850–1914’, in The Victorians and Race, ed. West, Shearer (Aldershot, 1996), 19Google Scholar . See also Lorimer, Douglas A., Colour, Class and the Victorians: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leicester, 1978)Google Scholar .

37 Godwin, William, cited in Robert, Nisbet, History of the Idea of Progress (London, 1980), 275Google Scholar .

38 Stocking, George, Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987), 18Google Scholar .

39 Wheeler, Roxann, The Complexion of Race: Categories of Difference in Eighteenth-Century British Culture (Philadelphia, 2000), 10Google Scholar .

40 Jones, Sir William, ‘On the arts, commonly called imitative’, from Poems, Consisting Chiefly of Translations from the Asiatik Languages, with two Essays on the Poetry of the Eastern National and on the Arts called Imitative (Oxford, 1772)Google Scholar , reprinted in Music Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries, ed. Peter Le Huray and James Day, Cambridge Readings in the Literature of Music (Cambridge, 1981), 143.

41 Colley, Linda, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850 (London, 2003), 99Google Scholar .

42 Ibid., 107.

43 Richardson, Michael, ‘Enough Said’, in Orientalism: A Reader, Alexander Lyon Macfie (Edinburgh, 2000), 208–16Google Scholar and passim.

44 Willard, Augustus N., A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan: Comprising a Detail of the Ancient Theory and Modern Practice (1834)Google Scholar , in Tagore, , Hindu Music, 21Google Scholar .

45 Hullah, John, The History of Modern Music. A Course of Lectures Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain (London, 1862), 67Google Scholar .

46 Bor, , ‘The Rise of Ethnomusicology’, 60Google Scholar .

47 Parry, C. Hubert H., The Art of Music (London, 1893), 52Google Scholar .

48 Ernst, Waltraud, in Race, Science and Medicine, 1700–1960, ed. Ernst, Waltraud and Harris, Bernard (London, 1999), 3Google Scholar .

49 O.H.H., , ‘Music in Embryo’, Musical Times (1 Sep. 1887): 533Google Scholar .

50 Engel, Carl, in Notes and Queries on Anthropology, For the Use of Travellers and Residents in Uncivilized Lands. [Drawn up by a Committee appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science.] (London, 1874), 110Google Scholar.

53 Ibid., 113.

54 Urry, James, Before Social Anthropology: Essays on the History of British Anthropology (Reading, 1993), 21Google Scholar .

55 Tylor, Edward B., Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom (London, 1871/1913), 7Google Scholar .

56 Ibid., 70.

57 Engel, , Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 114Google Scholar .

58 Tylor, , Primitive Culture, 274Google Scholar .

59 Engel, , Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 114Google Scholar .

61 Engel, Carl, The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, particularly of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hebrews; with Special Reference to Recent Discoveries in Western Asia and in Egypt (London, 1864), vGoogle Scholar.

62 Engel, Carl, An Introduction to the Study of National Music; comprising Researches into Popular Songs, Traditions, and Customs (London, 1866), 317Google Scholar .

63 Tylor, , Primitive Culture, 167–8Google Scholar .

64 Ibid., 168.

65 Engel, , An Introduction to the Study of National Music, 1Google Scholar .

66 Tylor, , Primitive Culture, 169Google Scholar .

68 Rowbotham, John Frederick is known generally for A History of Music (3 vols, 1885)Google Scholar , and Wallaschek, Richard for Primitive Music: An Inquiry into the Origin and Development of Music, Songs, Instruments, Dances, and Pantomimes of Savage Races (London and New York, 1893)Google Scholar. Despite adopting a broadly evolutionary template, Rowbotham situates this within a larely Comtean pattern of developmentalism, as he says: ‘The Embryology of the Arts ends with the evolution or introduction of the 3 forms of instrument … [corresponding to] the order of the 3 Stages in the development of Prehistoric Music, the Drum Stage, the Pipe Stage, and the Lyre Stage, which, it seems to me, are to the Musician what the Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive Stages are to the Comtist, or the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages to the archaeologist.’ (Rowbotham, John Frederick, A History of Music, 3 vols (London, 1885), vol. 1, xix–xx)Google Scholar. Wallaschek's developmentalist underlay was influenced by the more overtly racializing heredity conceptions of Darwin's younger cousin, Francis Galton, who in 1883 coined the term ‘eugenics’ (Galton, Francis, Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development (London, 1883/1973), 17)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and later defined it as ‘the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally’ (Galton, Francis, ‘Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope and Aims’ Nature 70 (1904), 82)Google Scholar. Writing on the development of harmony, for example, Wallaschek echoes Galton in suggesting that race, rather than historical circumstance, lies at the root of musical evolution: ‘Now we have seen that even uncivilised races know how to accompany a simple song by ear, while some of the more civilised ones, as the Chinese and other Oriental people, do not understand our harmony, although they have every opportunity of hearing our music. Thus the difference between people with and without harmonic music is not a historical but a racial one’ (Wallaschek, , Primitive Music, 144Google Scholar).

69 Cooper, Colin, Individual Differences (London, 2002), ixGoogle Scholar .

70 Myers, Charles Samuel, ‘Naturalism and Idealism’, The Philosophical Review 10/5 (Sep. 1901): 476CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

71 Myers, Charles Samuel, ‘The Psychology of Musical Appreciation’ (1932)Google Scholar , in Myers, Charles S., In the Realm of Mind: Nine Chapters on the Applications and Implications of Psychology (Cambridge, 1937), 6061Google Scholar .