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3. “Responsabilité international et responsabilité interne forment deux théories séparées, aux règies distinctes, encore que le progrès de l'une puisse, en fait, influer sur celle de l'autre.” Pradelle-Politis, De La, Recueil des arbitrages internationaux, Vol. II, p. 278.Google Scholar

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9. The International Law Commission already included the problem of the international responsibility of States among the subjects considered ripe for codification in its first meeting in 1949. U.N. Doc. A/C.6.L.31; U.N. Doc.A/C.6/SR.394. In Resolution 799/VIII of 7 December 1953 the General Assembly requested the Commission to place the codification of this problem on its agenda.

10. Yearbook of the International Law Commission (henceforth to be referred to as Y.I.L.C), 1971, Vol. II, first part, p. 214.Google Scholar

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13. In the case of Mallén (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 180.

14. De iure belli ac pacis, lib. II, cap. XVII.

15. Lib. I, cap. I, § XIV. 1.

16. “Maleficium hie appellamus culpam omnem, sive in faciendo, sive in non faciendo …”, he continues. Lib. II, cap. XVII, § 1.

17. Manual of Public International Law, 1968, p. 533.Google Scholar

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22. American Journal of International Law, 1961, p. 548.Google Scholar

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25. “Ex tali culpa obligatio natuialitei oritur si damnum datum est.” Lib. II, cap. XVII, § 1.Google Scholar

26. E.g. Guggenheim, , Traité de droit international public, 1954, Vol. II, p. 1Google Scholar; de Aréchega, Jiminez, op. cit., p. 534.Google Scholar

27. Already Grotius stated: “… damnum … etiam adversus honorem et famam datur.” Lib. II, cap. XVII, § XXII.

28. “With regard to the determination of the conditions essential for the existence of an internationally wrongful act, the Commission also recognized that under international law an injury material or moral, is necessarily inherent in every violation of an international subjective right of a State. Hence the notion of failure to fulfil an international obligation to another State seemed to the Commission fully sufficient to cover this aspect, without the addition of anything further … there is no need to take account of the so-called “damage” element in defining in principle the conditions for the existence of an internationally wrongful act.” Y.I.L.C., p. 223.Google Scholar

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30. “La vérité est que l'Etat est responsable du manquement au droit international sans qu'il soit necessaire d'identifier la faute de tel ou tel organe. Au surplus, c'est le manquement qui affecte l'Etat lésé: celui-ci tient à l'observation du droit international et souffre du manquement à ce dernier: c'est contre ce manquement qu'il a besoin d'être protégé.” Règles générales du droit de la paix. Recueil des cours de l'Académie de Droit international (henceforth to be referred to as Rec. des cours), Vol. 58, 1936, p. 670.Google Scholar

31. “Le droit des gens positif rattache la sanction à la violation d'une norme objective. Il ne fond done pas la responsabilité sur la culpabilité de l'organe.” Op. cit., Vol. II, p. 52.Google Scholar

32. Das völkerrechtliche Delikt, 1963, p. 164.Google Scholar

33. Annuaire, 1927, Vol. III, p. 330.Google Scholar

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35. I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18.Google Scholar

36. Y.I.L.C., p. 216.Google Scholar

37. I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22.Google Scholar

38. R.J.A.A., Vol. II, p. 839.Google Scholar

39. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 644

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42. In the case of Neer (1926). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 61.

43. The Law of Nations, 6th ed., 1963, p. 280.Google Scholar

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47. In the case of Roberts (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 80.

48. Mexico-U.S.A. Commission in the case of Hopkins (1926). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 47.

49. La responsabilità degli Stati per gli atti dei loro rappresentanti secondo il diritto internazionale, 1913, p. 117.Google Scholar English translation of the U.N. Secretariat.

50. I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 338.Google Scholar

51. Cf. the pronouncements of the Commission des réclamations Italie-Pérou (1901). R.I.A.A., Vol. XV, pp. 399. 401. 404, 407, 408, 409, and 411.Google ScholarIdem: Mixed Claims Commission U.S.A.- El Salvador in the case of Salvador Commercial Comp. (1903). Ibid., Vol. XV, p. 447; Mixed Claims Commission Netherlands-Venezuela in the case of Henriquez (1903). Ibid., Vol. XV, p. 714.

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53. Y.I.L.C., p. 238.Google Scholar

54. Op. cit., p. 92.Google Scholar

55. Annuaire, 1927, Vol. I, p. 507.Google Scholar This view is expressed in the resolution of the Institute of International Law already cited: “Cette responsabilité de l'Etat existe, soit que ses organes aient agi conformément, soit qu'ils aient agi contrairement à la loi ou a l'ordre d'une autorité superieure”. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 330.

56. In the case of Parker Massey (1927). R.I.A.A., Vol. IV, p. 159.Google Scholar

57. In the case of Way (1928). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 400.

58. In the case of Caire (1929). Ibid., Vol. V, p. 532. The Institute of International Law also expressed itself in this sense: “Elle (savoir: la responsabilité de l'Etat) existe également lorsque ces organes agissent en dehors de leur compétence, en se couvrant de leur qualité d'organes de l'Etat et en se servant des moyens mis, a ce titre, a leur disposition.” Annuaire, 1927, Vol. III, p. 330.Google Scholar

59. Mexico-U.S.A. Commission in the case of Mallén (1927). R.I.A.A., Vol. IV, p. 177.Google Scholar

60. Ibid., Vol. V, p. 531.

61. In the case of Gordon (1930). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 588.

62. Cf. Triepel, , Völkerrecht und Landesrecht, 1899, p. 350.Google Scholar As recently as a few years ago Judge Tanaka in his separate opinion, appended to the judgment of the International Court of Justice in the “Barcelona Traction” Case, took the following standpoint: “Unlike internationally injurious acts committed by administrative officials, a State is, in principle, not responsible for those acts committed by judicial functionaries (mainly judges) in their official capacity. The reason for this is found in the fact that in modern civilized countries they are almost entirely independent of their government.” I.C.J.Reports 1970, p. 156.Google Scholar

63. Op. cit., pp. 100–101.Google Scholar

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65. Annuaire, 1927, Vol. III, p. 330.Google Scholar

66. “Lotus” Case (1927) P.C.I.J. Series A, No. 10, p. 24.Google Scholar

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70. Commission des réclamations Italie-Vénézuéla in the case of Martini (1930). Ibid., Vol. II, p. 986.

71. Ibid., Vol. XIII, p. 438.

72. Y.I.L.C., p. 246.Google Scholar

73. Ibid., p. 253.

74. “Le prince ne doit done intervenir dans les causes de ses sujets en pays étranger et leur accorder sa protection que dans les cas de déni de justice évident et palpable, ou d'une violation manifeste des règies et des formes, ou enfin d'une distinction odieuse, faite au préjudice de ses sujets, ou des étrangers en général.” Le droit des gens, 1758, liv. II, chap. VII, § 84.Google Scholar

75. Op. cit., liv. II, chap. XVIII, § 350.Google Scholar

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78. Op. cit., pp. 286–287.Google Scholar

79. In the case of Chattin, (1927). R.I.A.A., Vol. IV, pp. 285–286.Google Scholar

80. In the case of James (1925). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 87.

81. “L'Etat est responsable du chef de déni de justice: 10 Lorsque les tribunaux necessaires pour assurer la protection des étrangers n'existent ou ne fonctionnent pas; 20 Lorsque les tribunaux ne sont pas accessibles aux étrangers; 30 Lorsque les tribunaux n'offrent pas les garanties indispensables pour assurer une bonne justice.” (Article 5) “L'Etat est également responsable si la procédure ou le jugement constituent un manquement manifeste à la justice, notamment s'ils ont été inspirés par la malveillance à l'égard des étrangers comme tels, ou comme ressortissants d'un Etat déterminé.” (Article 6) Annuaire, 1927, Vol. III, p. 330.Google Scholar

82. “International responsibility is incurred by a State if damage is sustained by a foreigner as a result of the fact: (1) That a judicial decision, which is not subject to appeal, is clearly incompatible with the international obligations of the State; (2) That, in a manner incompatible with the said obligations, the foreigner has been hindered by the judicial authorities in the exercise of his rights to pursue judicial remedies or has encountered in the proceedings injustifiable obstacles or delays implying a refusal to do justice.” League of Nations, Doc.C. 351, M.145, 1930 V.

83. “The denial to an alien of the right to initiate, or to participate in proceedings in a tribunal or an administrative authority to determine his civil rights or obligations is wrongful: (a) if it is a clear and discriminatory violation of the law of the State denying such access; (b) if it unreasonably departs from these rules of access to tribunals or administrative authorities which are recognized by the principal legal systems of the world; or (c) if it otherwise involves a violation by the State of a treaty.” A.J.I.L. 1961, p. 548.Google Scholar

84. “A decision or judgment of a tribunal or an administrative authority rendered in a proceeding involving the determination of the civil rights or obligations of an alien or any criminal charges against him, and either denying him recovery in whole or in part or granting recovery against him or imposing a penalty, whether civil or criminal, upon him is wrongful: (a) if it is a clear and discriminatory violation of the law of the State concerned; (b) if it unreasonably departs from the principles of justice recognized by the principal legal systems of the world; or (c) if it otherwise involves a violation by the State of a treaty.” Loc. cit.

85. In the case of The Interoceanic Railway of Mexico Ltd. (1931). R.I.A.A., Vol. V, p. 185.Google Scholar

86. In the case of El Oro Mining and Railway Comp. (1931). Ibid., Vol. V, p. 198.

87. Damage sustained by British citizens in Spanish Morocco. Ibid., Vol. II. p. 645.

88. In the case of Connoly (1928). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 388.

89. In the case of Austin (1930). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 624.

90. In the case of Massey (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p, 162.

91. Mexico-U.S.A. Commission in the case of Chase (1928). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 339.

92. Damage sustained by British citizens in Spanish Morocco. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 646.

93. In the case of Neer (1926). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 62.

94. In the case of Venale (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 245.

95. In the case of Chattin (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 295.

96. In the case of Roberts (1926). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 80.

97. In the case of Dyches (1929). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 459.

98. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 103.

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100. P.C.I.J. Series A, No. 10, p. 24.Google Scholar

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102. R.I.A.A., Vol. XII, p. 305.Google Scholar

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106. In the case of Kennedy (1927). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 199.

107. In the case of Greenlaw (1930). Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 631.

108. The Mavromantis Palestine Concessions (1924). P.C.I.J. Series A, No. 2, p. 12.Google Scholar

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110. “Diplomatic protection and protection by means of international judicial proceedings constitute measures for the defence of the rights of the State.” Nottebohm Case (second phase). I.C.J. Reports 1955, p. 24.Google Scholar

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112. In the case of the North American Dredging Co. of Texas (1926). R.I.A.A., Vol. IV, p. 29.Google Scholar

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116. See e.g. Article 15 of the Treaty between the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia for the settlement of disputes through jurisdiction, arbitration, and conciliation, concluded on 14 September 1929 in Geneva: “S'il s'agit d'une contestation dont l'objet, d'après la législation intérieure de l'une des Parties, relève de la compétence des tribunaux nationaux de celle-ci, le différend ne pourra être soumis à la procédure prévue par le présent Traité qu'après jugement passé en force de chose jugée et rendu dans les délais raisonnables par l'autorité judiciaire nationale compétente.” Martens, , N.R.G. 3e série, Vol. XXIII, p. 338Google Scholar; Stb. 1930, no. 230.Google Scholar

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122. I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27.Google Scholar

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128. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 1503.

129. Ibid., Vol. VI, p. 129.