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Nationalism and Jewish Emancipation in Russia: The 1880s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

I. Michael Aronson
I. Michael Aronson*
Affiliation:
University of Haifa
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Extract

By the end of the nineteenth century Russian legislation regarding Jews was a congeries of self-contractions and inconsistencies. On the one hand, Jews were hemmed in by numerous restrictions and repressive measures in regard to their residence rights, economic activities, communal organization, educational opportunities, and even religious practices. On the other hand, the limits of discrimination were often ill-defined, being expanded by some laws and contracted by others; in some cases important privileges were granted to various categories of Jews (for example, the right to live outside the Pale of Jewish Settlement) or to the Jewish community as a whole (for example, the right to collect certain taxes). In addition, the enforcement of this hodge-podge of rules and regulations varied from place to place and from time to time.

Type
Articles
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 5 , Issue 2 , Fall 1977 , pp. 167 - 182
Copyright
Copyright © 1976 by the Association for the Study of the Nationalities (USSR and East Europe) Inc. 

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References

Notes

1. On Russian Jewish history in general see Salo Baron, W., The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets, 2d ed. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1976) (Hereinafter referred to as Russian Jew.); S. M. Dubnow, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Trans. by I. Friedlaender, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1916–20) (Hereinafter referred to as Jews in Russia.]; Encyclopaedia Judaica, 16 vols. (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971); Evreiskaia Entsiklopediia, 16 vols. (St. Petersburg: Brokgaus-Efron, 1906–13); Iulii Gessen, Istoriia Evreiskogo Naroda v Rossii, 2 vols. in 1: (Leningrad: Tip. K.-O. Leningradskogo Gubprofsoveta, 1925–27); Iu. Gessen, , Zakon i Zhizn': Ka Sozidalis’ Ogranichitel'nye Zakony o Zhitel'stve Evreev v Rossii (St. Petersburg: A. G. Rosen, 1911); Louis Greenberg, The Jews in Russia, 2 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944–51). (Hereinafter referred to as Jews in Russia.).Google Scholar

Specifically on Russian legislation in regard to the Jews see Ia. Gimpel'son, I. and Bramson, D. M., Zakony o Evreiakh (St. Petersburg: n.p., 1914); E. B. Levin, Sbornik Ogranichitel'nykh Zakonov i Postanovlenii o Evreiakh po 1-e Iiulia 1902 Goda (St. Petersburg: M. M. Stasiulevich, 1902); M. A. Lozina-Lozinskii, ed., Sistematicheskii Sbornik Raz'iasnenii Pravitel'-stvuiushchago Senata po Delam o Zhitel'stve Evreev (St. Petersburg: A. E. Landau, 1902); M. I. Mysh, Rukovodstvo k Russkim Zakonam o Evreiakh, 3d ed. (st. Petersburg: A. E. Landau, 1904).Google Scholar

Professor Hans Rogger has contributed to this discussion three enlightening articles, namely: “The Jewish Policy of Late Tsarism: A Reappraisal,” The Wiener Library Bulletin, XXV:1 & 2 (1971), 42–51; “Tsarist Policy on Jewish Emigration,” Soviet Jewish Affairs, III:1 (1973), 26–36; “Russian Ministers and the Jewish Question, 1881–1917,” California Slavic Studies, VIII (1975), 15–76. (Hereinafter referred to as “Russian Ministers.”).Google Scholar

2. National Separatism does not appear here since the classification deals only with policies adopted by the dominant group toward a minority, whereas national separatism refers to a policy that the minority might adopt.Google Scholar

For an excellent, expanded treatment of the national minority problem in recent history, which points in the direction of the classification presented here, see Akzin, Benjamin, State and Nation (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1964). (Hereinafter referred to as State and Nation.) Google Scholar

3. Baron, , Russian Jew, p. 9; Dubnow, Jews in Russia, I: 243.Google Scholar

4. Baron, , Russian Jew, ch. 1; Dubnow, Jews in Russia, I: 246–58; Leo Errera, The Russian Jews: Extermination or Emancipation? Trans. by Bella Loewy (London: David Nutt, 1894), p. 5 (Hereinafter referred to as The Russian Jews.); Gradovskii, N. D., Zamechaniia na Zapisku Kniazei Golitsynykh o Cherte Osedlosti Evreev (St. Petersburg: V. F. Kirshbaum, 1886), p. 12 (Hereinafter referred to as Zamechaniia.); Greenberg, Jews in Russia, I: 7–8; Mark Vishniak, “Anti-Semitism in Russia.” in Essays on Anti-Semitism, ed. by Koppel S. Pinson (New York: Conference on Jewish Relations, 1942), pp. 80–81. (Hereinafter referred to as “Anti-Semitism in Russia.”)Google Scholar

5. Baron, , Russian Jew, chs. 2–4, 7; Dubnow, Jews in Russia, I: chs. 7, 9, 10, 12 and II: chs. 13, 14, 17; Errera, The Russian Jews, pp. 6–9; Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 18–41; Greenberg, Jews in Russia, I: chs. 1, 4; Levitats, Isaac, The Jewish Community in Russia, 1772–1844 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943); Vishniak, “Anti-Semitism in Russia,” pp. 81–87.Google Scholar

6. Baron, , Russian Jew, ch. 3; Dubnow, Jews in Russia, II: chs. 18, 19; Errera, The Russian Jews, pp. 25–26; Greenberg, Jews in Russia, I: chs. 6, 7; Vishniak, “Anti-Semitism in Russia,” pp. 90–91.Google Scholar

7. On the term “ethnic” see Glazer, Nathan, “The Universalisation of Ethnicity,” Encounter, XLIV: 2 (February 1975), 8–17.Google Scholar

8. See Akzin, State and Nation; Kohn, Hans, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1944), especially chs. 7, 8; H. Kohn, Nationalism: Its Meaning and History, An Anvil Original Rev. ed. (Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1965); Louis L. Snyder, The Meaning of Nationalism (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1954).Google Scholar

9. See above, note 8.Google Scholar

10. See above, note 8.Google Scholar

11. Examples abound throughout the sources. Among some of the more important sources for this period are Pavel Pavlovich Demidoff [Demidov], prince of San Donato, The Jewish Question in Russia, trans. by J. Michell. 2d. ed. (London: Darling and Son, 1884). (Hereinafter referred to as The Jewish Question.); Iu. Gessen, “Graf N. P. Ignat'ev i ‘Vremennyia Pravila’ o Evreiakh 3 Maia 1882 Goda,” Pravo, Ezhenedel'naia Iuridicheskaia Gazeta, no. 30 (July 27, 1908), pp. 1631–37 and no. 31 (Aug. 3, 1908), pp. 1678–86. (Hereinafter referred to as “Graf N. P. Ignat'ev.”); Gradovskii, Zamechaniia; Krasnyi-Admoni, G. Ia., ed., Materialy dlia Istorii Antievreiskikh Pogromov v Rossii, vol. 2: Vos'midesiatye Gody, 12 Aprel’ 1881–29 Fevral’ 1882 (Petrograd and Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel'stvo, 1923). (Hereinafter referred to as Materialy.); N. S. Leskov, Evrei v Rossii (Petrograd: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel'stvo, 1919). (Hereinafter referred to as Evrei v Rossii.); A. P. Subbotin, Obshchaia Zapiska po Evreiskomu Voprosu (St. Petersburg: n. p., 1905). (Hereinafter referred to as Obshchaia Zapiska.); Trudy Gubernskikh Kommissii po Evreiskomu Voprosu, 2 parts (St. Petersburg: Vysshaia Kommissiia po Peresmotru Deistvuiushchikh o Evreiakh v Imperii Zakonov, 1884). (Hereinafter referred to as TGK.); Obshchaia Zapiska Vysshei Kommissii dlia Peresmotra Deistvuiushchikh o Evreiakh v Imperii Zakonov (1883–1888) ([St. Petersburg?]: n.p., [1888]). (Hereinafter referred to as OZVK.); Obzor Postanovlenii Vysshei Kommissii po Peresmotru Deistvuiushchikh o Evreiakh Imperii Zakonov (1883–1888): Prilozhenie k “Obshchei Zapiske” Vysshei Kommissii ([St. Petersburg?]: n.p., 1888). (Hereinafter referred to as OPVK.).Google Scholar

12. Cases abound throughout the sources. The following random examples might be noted: Krasnyi-Admoni, , Materialy, pp. 274–75, 359–61; Gessen, “Graf N.P. Ignat'ev,” pp. 1635–36; Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 91–100; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 268–76, 393–97; Kherson, pp. 1084–92, 1239; Kiev, pp. 463–64, 488–98, 503–4; Mogilev, pp. 21–24; Podolia, pp. 109–13; Poltava, pp. 980–87; Volynia, pp. 598–609, 650–56, 676–77.Google Scholar

13. Cases abound throughout the sources. The following random examples might be noted: Demidoff, , The Jewish Question, pp. 36–49, 64, 92–103; Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, passim; Leskov, Evrei v Rossii, pp. 33–40, 85–96; Subbotin, Obshchaia Zapiska, pp. 46–52, 125–36, 158–59, 180, 193–98; OZVK, pp. 150–53, 250–53, 261–86; OPVK, pp. 90–93, 129–32; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 297, 315–16; Kiev, pp. 423–28; Poltava, pp. 791, 808, 952–57; Vilna, pp. 93–98, 112–13, 173–79.Google Scholar

14. The references listed here are merely the most outstanding examples.Google Scholar

Among anit-emancipationsists see Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 191, 230; Krasnyi-Admoni, Materialy, p. 371; OZVK, pp. 90–91; OPVK, p. 158; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 340–42, 359, 388; Grodno, pp. 32–33; Khar'kov, pp. 49, 97–98; Kherson, pp. 1227, 1231–34; Kiev, pp. 412–13; Kovno, p. 21; Odessa, pp. 995, 1059–62, 1069, 1073; Podolia, 88–92; Vilna, pp. 6–8, 13–15, 22, 27–28, 127; Volynia, pp. 564–65, 615–16.Google Scholar

Among pro-emancipationists see Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 23, 33–34, 47–49, 151–52, 165, 199, 230–34, 242–44, 252–56, 259–61; Leskov, Evrei v Rossii, pp. 74–76, 96; OZVK, pp. 252, 264, 274–76, 286; OPVK, pp. 34–36, 57–58, 62–63, 68–69, 133; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, p. 303; Poltava, pp. 789–90, 953–57; Tavrida, pp. 516–17; Vilna, pp. 186–88; Vitebsk, p. 13.Google Scholar

15. For examples see Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 2–3, 55–57, 132–33, 154–55, 191, 205–6, 229; Krasnyi-Admoni, Materialy, pp. 508–9; OZVK, pp. 198, 212; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 251, 268–76; Khar'kov, pp. 97–98; Kherson, pp. 124–25; Mogilev, pp. 1–41; Odessa, pp. 996, 1053–54, 1069–71; Podolia, pp. 88–92, 113, Poltava, pp. 860, 870–71, 921, 964; Vilna, pp. 5–10, 13, 17; Vitebsk, pp. 4, 24–26, 32–34, 47–57; Volynia, pp. 561–70, 598–609, 622, 655–56.Google Scholar

16. For examples see Dubnow, , Jews in Russia, II, 339–40, 348–51, 427–28; Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 151–63, 229; Greenberg, Jews in Russia, II, 34–35, 85; Krasnyi-Admoni, Materialy, pp. 24–27, 75–85; OZVK, pp. 80–82, 180–250, passim, and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 256–60, 268–76, 333–38, 390–401; Khar'kov, pp. 16, 28–29, 43–48, 73, 97 111–15; Kiev, pp. 421–29; Mogilev, pp. 1–41, 64–65, 94; Poltava, pp. 788–98, 805, 809–13, 863, 885–89, 978–87; Volynia, all, passim.Google Scholar

17. For examples see Gradovskii, , Zamechaniia, pp. 59, 64, 159–60, 208–11, 229, OZVK, pp. 96–97; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 239, 244–45, 276, 338–45, 359, 393–401; Grodno, pp. 8–9, 27; Kherson, pp. 1237–38; Kovno, pp. 7–8, 12–14; Mogilev, pp. 6, 19–20, 28–29, 38–40, 64–65; Vilna, pp. 7, 13–15, 62–66, 125–26.Google Scholar

18. Cases abound throughout the sources. The following random examples might be noted: Gradovskii, , Zamechaniia, pp. 64, 154, 169; Gessen, “Graf N.P. Ignat'ev,” pp. 1632, 1636, 1681; Krasnyi-Admoni, Materialy, pp. 127, 276, 361, 370, 382–83, 416, 458–59, 500–501, 505, 512–13, 525; OZVK, pp. 86, 200–206, 229–34, 244; OPVK, pp. 1415, 99–100, 124; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 233–37, 250–52, 268, 277, 287, 291, 401; Grodno, pp. 9, 20–21; Kar'kov, pp. 24–25, 37, 56, 61–62; Poltava, pp. 779, 809–10, 861–63, 981–83, 987; Volynia, pp. 567–74, 578, 618–23, 633–38, 667–72, 696.Google Scholar

19. See above, note 18.Google Scholar

20. Cases abound throughout the sources. The following random examples might be noted: Gradovskii, , Zamechaniia, pp. 2–3, 55–57, 191, 205–6, 229; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 251, 268–76; Kar'kov, pp. 97–98; Odessa, pp. 996, 1053–54, 1069–71; Podolia, pp. 88–92, 113, Poltava, pp. 860, 870–71, 921, 964.Google Scholar

21. For examples see Gradovskii, , Zamechaniia, pp. 48–49, 159–60, 165, 198–210, 229; OZVK, pp. 259–75; OPVK, pp. 34, 70, 72, 97, 122, 133; and in TGK, Ekaterinoslav, pp. 256–60, 276, 317, 329, 332, 338–43, 359, 393–401; Mogilev, pp. 6, 20, 38–40, 64–65; Podolia, pp. 91–92, 108, 122; Poltava, pp. 886–91, 954–55; Vilna, pp. 13, 17, 62, 113, 121, 126, 180–88.Google Scholar

22. In addition to the works listed above in note 1, see Dawidowicz, Lucy S., ed., The Golden Tradition: Jewish Life and Thought in Eastern Europe (Boston: Beacon, Press, 1967) and Maurice Samuel, Blood Accusation: The Strange History of the Beiliss Case (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1966).Google Scholar

23. OZVK. The Commission, also known as the Pahlen Commission, after its president, Count K. I. Pahlen, was appointed by Alexander III. It met from 1883–1888. The commission majority's report favored gradual emancipation of the Jews.Google Scholar

24. OZVK, pp. 281–82.Google Scholar

25. See Florinsky, Michael T., Russia: A History and an Interpretation 2 vols. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1947–53), vol. II and Yaney, George L., The Systematization of Russian Government (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1973).Google Scholar

26. Cases abound throughout the sources. The following random examples might be noted: Demidoff, , The Jewish Question, pp. 59–60, 93–100; Gradovskii, Zamechaniia, pp. 72, 77–81, 114, 129, 145, 173, 186–97; Subbotin, Obshchaia Zapiska. 144, 185–89, OZVK, pp. 58, 97, 150–53, 174, 273, 281–82, 289–94; and in TGK, Bessarabia, pp. 749–50; Ekaterinoslav, pp. 293–95, 300–302, 315–16; Kiev, pp. 425–26; Poltava, pp. 798–99, 854, 937–38, 949; Tavrida, pp. 518–21; Vilna, pp. 90, 96, 102, 105, 179–80.Google Scholar

Also see Aronson, I. Michael, “The Attitudes of Russian Officials in the 1880s Toward Jewish Assimilation and Emigration,” Slavic Review, XXXIV:1 (March, 1975), 1–18 and Rogger, “Russian Ministers,” pp. 22–25, 30–36.Google Scholar

27. Lukashevich, Stephen, Ivan Aksakov, 1823–1886: A Study in Russian Thought and Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 167–68.Google Scholar

28. OZVK, p. 270.Google Scholar

29. Evan, Abba, My People: The Story of the Jews (New York: Behrman House, Inc. and Random House, Inc., 1968), p. 278.Google Scholar