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“Algiers and the Algerian Desert”: Decolonization and the Regional Question in France, 1958–1962
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 September 2022
Abstract
This article demonstrates how Algerian decolonization played a key role in shaping the discipline of territorial planning (aménagement du territoire) in metropolitan France. A number of liberal economists, including François Perroux, articulated notions of economic space that eschewed the nation-state as a unit of analysis. In colonial Algeria, this discourse was subsequently adopted by officials who sought to integrate Muslim Algerians into the French Republic. Discussions on territorial planning in late colonial Algeria echoed debates in the United States regarding the “social uplift” of African Americans in the South, which also attempted to stem the rising tide of separatism. In the 1950s, liberal understandings of the relationship among cultural specificity, territorial scale, and economic development were challenged by a host of actors, including Algerian nationalists who espoused ideas that would later appear in the analyses of world systems theorists. After the victory of the Algerian FLN (Front de libération nationale) in 1962, discussions on regional identities provided an important tool for political claims on both sides of the Mediterranean. Moreover, techniques of territorial planning developed in Algeria were imported to the Hexagon in the aftermath of Algerian independence.
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References
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20 Brenner, New State Spaces, 116.
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24 Deborah Thomas, Exceptional Violence: Embodied Citizenship in Transnational Jamaica (Durham, NC, 2011), 60.
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27 Francois Perroux, A New Concept of Development: Basic Tenets (Paris, 1983), 100. Perroux, “Note sur la notion de pôle de croissance,” Économie appliquée 8 (1955), 307–20, at 309. For a study of the influence of this notion on economic analysts see Parr, J. B., “Growth-pole strategies in regional economic planning: A retrospective view,” Urban Studies 36/7 (1999), 1195–2215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
28 Perroux, “Economic Space,” 100.
29 Ibid., 90.
30 Ibid., 100.
31 Couzon, “Les espaces économiques,” 91.
32 François Perroux, Europe sans rivages (Paris, 1954), 22.
33 Correspondance between the centres sociaux and Perroux, Jan. 1958, Institut mémoires de l’édition contemporaine (hereafter IMEC), Archives of François Perroux (PRX) 207.5.
34 Cahiers de l'Institut de science économique appliquée 106 (1960).
35 François Perroux, “Introduction,” Cahiers de l'Institut de science économique appliquée 106 (1960), 3–5, at 3.
36 Three ZIDs were found in Tizi-Ouzou, Bougie, and Beni-Saf and developed by SEZID (Société d’équipement des zones industrielles décentralisées), which were created in February 1960. Hartmut Elsenhans, La Guerre d'Algérie 1954–1962: La transition d'une France à une autre (Paris, 2000), 63. François Perroux's influence can also be seen in the fact that his student, Gérard Destanne de Bernis, well known for the notion of the notion of “industrializing industries,” was an adviser to the Algerian Ministry of Industrialization in the late 1960s. Adamson goes so far as to argue that “it is only possible to make sense of Algerian industrial policy planning, and consequently its view of agriculture, if one refers back to the writings of Perroux.” Kay Adamson, Algeria: A Study in Competing Ideologies (London, 1998), 110.
37 Isabelle Couzon mentions that Perroux (along with Jean-François Gravier) wrote for the journal Fédération: Revue de l'ordre vivant, which supported a decentralized conception of Europe in the name of “civilization,” signaling a nostalgic vision of medieval Christian Europe. Couzon, “Les espaces économiques,” 88.
38 Albert O Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven, 1958), Ch. 10.
39 Ibid., 208.
40 Ibid., 209.
41 Gunnar Myrdal, Rich Lands and Poor: The Road to World Prosperity (New York, 1957), 10. For a more contemporary study of the region as an “invented community” that transcends the South and focuses on the Southwest and the upper Ohio Valley see Andrew Needham and Allen Dieterich-Ward, “Beyond the Metropolis: Metropolitan Growth and Regional Transformation in Postwar America,” Journal of Urban History 25/7 (2009), 943–69.
42 Myrdal, Rich Lands and Poor, 17.
43 Mark Anderson, From Boas to Black Power: Racism, Liberalism and American Anthropology (Stanford, 2019), 188.
44 Myrdal, Rich Lands and Poor, 17.
45 Todd Shepard argues, “Self-serving comparisons between French efforts to ‘integrate’ Algerians in the face of terrorism and the ways that U.S. authorities responded to the nonviolent civil rights movement were constants in mainstream and right-wing French media.” Todd Shepard, The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France (Ithaca, 2006), 60–61. For more accounts of how ideas regarding race and decolonization were formed in a crucible of American and African movements for liberation see Horne, Mau Mau in Harlem?. While the UNESCO tradition of race thinking is often associated with postwar Europe, Anthony Q. Hazard demonstrates how American officials influenced these debates in Postwar Anti-racism: The United States, UNESCO, and “Race,” 1945–1968 (New York, 2012).
46 Muriam Haleh Davis, Markets of Civilization: Islam and Racial Capitalism in Algeria (Durham, 2022).
47 Stephen Tyre, “From Algérie française to France musulmane: Jacques Soustelle and the Myths and Realities of ‘Integration’, 1955–1962,” Society of the Study of French History 20/3 (2006), 276–96. In a radio broadcast in February 1956, Guy Mollet described the “essential task” of preventing bloodshed in Algeria as being tied to France's ability to recognize and respect the Algerian personality and to realize total political equality among all inhabitants of Algeria. Quoted in Jean-Charles Scagnetti, “Identité ou personnalité algérienne? L’édification d'une algérienité (1962–1988),” Cahiers de la Méditerranée 66 (2003), 367–84, at 373. Also see Henri Sanson, “Les motivations de la personnalité algérienne en ce temps de décolonisation,” Annuaire de l'Afrique du nord 6 (1968), 13–20.
48 Tyre, “From Algérie française,” 282.
49 Frederick Cooper, Citizenship between Empire and Nation: Remaking France and French Africa, 1945–1960 (Princeton, 2014), 214.
50 Paul Isoard, “L’élaboration de la constitution de l'Union française: Les assemblées constituantes et le problème colonial,” in Charles-Robert Ageron, ed., Les chemins de la décolonisation de l'empire colonial français (Paris, 1986), 15–31. Algeria was not affected by the framework law as it comprised French departments. It is also important to point out that the French government still controlled the strategic domains of foreign affairs and defense.
51 Ministère d’État chargé des affaires algériennes (81F) 64, Discours prononcé par M. Jacques Soustelle, 23 Feb. 1955, 10, Archives nationales d'Outre-Mer (hereafter ANOM).
52 Quoted in Tyre, “From Algérie française,” 296.
53 Raymond E. Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 (New York, 1961), vii–ix.
54 “Discours prononcé par M. Jacques Soustelle,” 23 Feb. 1955, 11, ANOM 81F/641.
55 Jacques Soustelle, Aimée et souffrante Algérie (Paris, 1956), 79.
56 Osama Abi-Mershed, Apostles of Modernity: Saint-Simonians and the Civilizing Mission in Algeria (Stanford, 2010).
57 Christine Mussard, “Réinventer la commune? Genèse de la commune mixte, une structure administrative inédite dans l'Algérie colonial,” Centre d'histoire de sciences Po 27/3 (2015), 93–108. Collot underscores the need to introduce social evolution through territorial reform, quoting the decree of 2 January 1957, which stated, “The exercise of responsibilities will permit the progressive and rapid training of real elites.” Claude Collot, Les institutions de l'Algérie durant la période colonial: 1830–1962 (Paris, 1987), 136.
58 “Une conférence de M. Jacques Soustelle,” La nouvelle revue française d'Outre-Mer 8–9 (1956), 373–7, at 377, ANOM 81F/641.
59 These debates also continued after independence when the ordonnance of 18 January 1963 defined the Algerian commune as “the basic political, administrative, economic and social territorial collectivity.” Raham notes that this definition borrowed from the French model in that it adopted the principle of autonomy, which he defines as a brassage of the French and Algerian systems, despite the opposition in their ideological orientations. D. Raham, “Genèse et évolution du maillage territorial en Algérie: Le cas de l'est algérien,” Revue sciences humaines 20 (2003), 29–48, at 40.
60 Shepard, “À l'heure des ‘grands ensembles’,” 126.
61 Romain Pasquier, Regional Governance and Power in France: The Dynamics of Political Space (Basingstoke, 2015), 25. Wakeman describes how social engineering, and the quest to create man “as habitant and consumer” as well as “technologist and producer,” was central to the territorial planning of Toulouse. Rosemary Wakeman, Modernizing the Provincial City: Toulouse 1945–1975, (Cambridge, 1997), 144.
62 René Lenoir, “La mise en route de petits travaux fournirait de l'emploi à la population algérienne,” Le Monde, 3 March 1960, ANOM 81F/176.
63 “Commission rôle et structure de la commune,” rapport général, Comite des affaires algériennes, Ordre du jour, 18 Jan. 1961, Archives du Ministère des affaires étrangères (hereafter MAE), Secrétariat d'État aux affaires algériennes (hereafter SEAA), 51.
64 Ibid.
65 SEAA 15, “Bilan des solutions institutionnelles qui ont été proposées pour l'Algérie,” n.d., no author, MAE. For more on Marcel Champeix see Martin Evans, Algeria: France's Undeclared War (Oxford, 2012), 157–9. For an account of various spatial partition plans see Arthur Asseraf, “A New Israel: Colonial Comparisons and the Algerian Partition That Never Happened,” French Historical Studies 41/1 (2018), 95–120.
66 “Éléments d'une solution d'intégration,” Mission d’études, 1, n.d., MAE SEAA 15.
67 “Projet de M. Lauriol, Professor a Alger,” 2, n.d., MAE SEAA 15.
68 Marc Lauriol, Le fédéralisme et l'Algérie (Paris, 1957), 12. Also see Marc Lauriol, L'Algérie angoissée (Algiers,1956).
69 Le Monde, 17 Jan. 1958.
70 Alain Herbeth, Jacques Soustelle: L'homme de l'intégration (Paris, 2015).
71 “Une conférence de M. Jacques Soustelle,” 377.
72 “Les conditions de l’équilibre politique de l’état Algérien,” Mission d’études, 14, n.d., MAE SEAA 15.
73 Ibid.
74 The head of this commission was Camille Bonnome, the general inspector for the Ministry of Construction, who went on to write L'urbanisation française in 1964.
75 M. Saint-Germes, “Le problème de l'eau,” Terre algérienne, 29 June 1960, 1, Centres des Archives nationales algériennes (hereafter CANA).
76 André Jacomet, “Le développement africain,” Institut d’études du développement africain (Alger), July 1960, MAE SAEE 184. According to Nassima Dris, colonial strategies for spatial planning remained in place until 1968. DATAR was inherited by the CNERU (Centre national d’études et de recherches appliquées en urbanisme) in 1980, and the Bureau d’études des techniques d'architecture et d'urbanisme (ETAU) under the Ministry of Public Works and Construction. For more works on territorial planning in Algeria during the post-colonial period see Nassima Dris, La ville mouvementée: Espace public, centralité, memoire urbaine à Alger (Paris, 2002); Nora Semmoud, Les strategies d'appropriation de l'espace à Alger (Paris, 2001); Marc Côte, L'espace algérien: Les prémices d'un aménagement (Alger, 1983). Jean-Claude Brûlé Abed Bendjelid and Jacques Fontaine, eds., Aménageurs et aménagés en Algérie: Héritages des années Boumediene et Chadli (Paris, 2004).
77 “Aménager le territoire: Un outil, CADAT,” Bulletin de la Caisse d’équipement pour le développement de l'Algérie 3 (1961), 17–24, at 17, ANOM, Bibliothèque (BIB AOM) 20327/1962.
78 André Derrouch, “La caisse algérienne d'aménagement du territoire,” Institut d’études du développement africain, Numéro spécial (1960), 9–20, at 19, MAE SEAA 184.
79 Ibid.
80 Three kinds of zone came under its purview: industrial zones adjacent to urban areas (zones industrielles suburbaines), industrial zones that had geographic advantages such as ports (zones industrielles à affectation spéciale), and three large “decentralized” industrial zones (zones d'industrialisations décentralisées—ZIDs) at Rouiba-Réghaia (near Algiers), Duzerville (near Bône), and Sainte-Barge du Tlétat (near Oran).
81 “Rapport de la sous-commission des problèmes humains,” Commissariat général au plan, Nov. 1958, ANOM 81F/2255.
82 “Buts et méthodes de la planification régionale,” 23 Jan. 1962, Archives nationales (AN), Archives du Plan de Constantine (F/60) 4021.
83 Henni demonstrates how the organization of space and the built environment was central in the strategy of pacification employed during the Algerian War. Samia Henni, Architecture of Counterrevolution: The French Army in Northern Algeria (Zurich, 2017).
84 Comité économique, réunion No. VII, 19 April 1960, Délégation général, gouvernement en Algérie, Algiers, 29 April 1960, ANOM, Cabinet Delouvrier (14CAB) 24.
85 CANA, “L'Union algérienne de la C.G.A. s'est préoccupée de la sécurité des campagnes des personnes et des biens,” Terre algérienne, 2 Feb. 1959, 1. This seems to confirm Lefeuvre's argument: “For numerous Algerian enterprises, the state [was] an indispensable client that the political conjuncture made much more accommodating.” Daniel Lefeuvre, Chère Algérie: Comptes et mécomptes de la tutelle coloniale, 1930–1962 (Saint-Denis, 1997), 391.
86 “Rapport au conseil supérieur de l'aménagement du territoire,” Direction de l’énergie et de l'industrialisation, 10 Jan. 1962, AN F/60/4021.
87 “Rapport au conseil supérieur de l'aménagement du territoire,” Direction de l’énergie et de l'industrialisation, 10 Jan. 1962, 13, AN F/60/4021.
88 “Philippeville, ville martyre,” letter sent to general delegate of the government in Algeria, Algiers, 9 Dec. 1959, ANOM 81F/2019.
89 “Blida, 10 Décembre 1960,” 3, ANOM 81F/26.
90 Shepard, The Invention of Decolonization, 77.
91 CANA, “Plan de Constantine: observations et analyses,” 23 June 1961, Archives du GPRA 037.03.001.
92 Immanuel Wallerstein, The Essential Wallerstein (New York, 2000), 139.
93 Samir Amin, Accumulation on a World Scale: A Critique of the Theory of Underdevelopment (New York, 1974); Amin, “Accumulation and Development: A Theoretical Model,” Review of African Economy 1 (1974), 2–26.
94 Mohand Noureddine, “La commune, cellule vivante de l'Algérie future,” Dêpeche quotidien, 28 April 1960, ANOM 81F/176.
95 Bourdieu, Pierre, “L'identité et la représentation,” Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980), 63–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 66. Robert notes that from the 1970s onwards, the Berberist movement has been “portrayed as analogous in essential respects to the Breton and Occitan movements in France.” Hugh Roberts, The Battlefield, Algeria 1988–2002: Studies in a Broken Policy (London, 2003), 37.
96 “Note sur le projet de zone industrielle décentralisée à Tizi-Ouzou,” no author, n.d., ANOM 81F/965, emphasis added.
97 For more on the production of the “Kabyle myth” see Patricia M. E. Lorcin, Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice and Race in Colonial Algeria (London, 1995).
98 Bourdieu, “L'identité et la représentation,” 65.
99 Pervillé asks about the meaning of colonization, noting that the category was not applied to Alsace–Lorraine after the treaty of Frankfurt when Germany annexed the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Pervillé, Guy, “Qu'est-ce que la colonisation?”, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 22/3 (1975), 321–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 321. The notion of internal colonialism has a longer genealogy that goes back to Vladimir Lenin's writings on Russia as well as Antonio Gramsci's analysis of southern Italy. Hind, Robert J., “The Internal Colonial Concept,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 26/3 (1984), 543–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
100 Robert Lafont, La révolution régionaliste (Paris, 1967), 18.
101 Ibid., 19.
102 Matthew Wendeln, “Contested Territory: Regional Development in France, 1934–1968” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 2011), 334–6.
103 Ibid., 242.
104 Jean-Pierre Santini, Front de libération de la Corse: De l'ombre à la lumière (Paris, 2000), 20.
105 Mendras, Henri and Tavernier, Yves, “Les Manifestations de Juin 1961,” Revue française de science politique 12 (1962), 647–67Google Scholar, at 668.
106 Sabine Effose, “Paul Delouvrier et les villes nouvelles (1961–1969),” in Jean-Eudes Roullier and Sébastien Laurent, eds., Paul Delouvrier un grand commis de l’État (Paris, 2005), 78.
107 Michel Marié, Les terres et les mots: Une traversée des sciences sociales (Paris, 1989), 32.
108 Ibid., 32. For an anthropological study of these villes nouvelles also see Beth Epstein, Collective Terms: Race, Culture, and Community in a State-Planned City in France (New York, 2011).
109 “Olivier Guichard, le père fondateur de la DATAR,” Territoires en mouvement 6 (2012), 13.
110 For more on his understanding of territorial planning see Jérôme Monod, Transformation d'un pays: Pour un géographie de la liberté (Paris, 1974). Monod also published his letters sent from Morocco and Algeria in Le déchirement: Lettres d'Algérie et du Maroc, 1953–1958 (Paris, 2008).
111 Giles Massardier, “Aménagement du territoire,” in Romain Pasquier, Sébastien Guigner, and Alistair Cole, eds., Dictionnaire des politiques territoriales (Paris, 2020), 39–45.