No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Horses of Cyrenaica: breeding and charioteers in the Greek and Roman periods (literary, epigraphical and visual data)
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 September 2023
Abstract
Our knowledge about Cyrenaican horses during the Greek and Roman periods is mainly derived from ancient literary sources. They tell us that horses were bred with distinctive skills in this region and report interesting stories highlighting the participation of Cyrenaican horses in athletic games. The literary data suggests Cyrene is a horse-breeding centre and this paper examines whether these assertions represent a reality, or simply a convention. This study investigates and analyses other locally related archaeological data, including epigraphy documents published by the digital corpora of IGCyr and IRCyr. Although most of the inscriptions in these corpora are published, little attention has been given to horses. The adapted approach here aims to build up a picture about horses using local evidence, with a focus on the linguistic indications of equestrian practice at Cyrenaica and the use of horse-related terms in nomenclature. Interestingly, the regional textual and archaeological data provide us with a similar picture to that presented by the literary references regarding horse breeding in Cyrenaica, charioteer training and their contribution to overseas Greek and Roman sport.
إن معلوماتنا عن خيول كِيرِينَايكي، خلال الفترتين الإغريقية والرومانية، مُستمدة بشكل أساسي من المصادر الأدبية القديمة. إذ تُحدثنا بأن الخيول رُبِّـيت في هذا الإقليم بمهارات مميزة، كما نقلت لنا روايات شيقة تُلقي الضوء على مشاركتها الرائعة في الألعاب الرياضية. وتُظْهِرُ المصادر الأدبية مدينة كيريني، بشكل عام، على أنها كانت مركزًا لتربية الخيول . تعرض هذه الورقة المعلومات التي ورد ذكرها في المصادر الأدبية وتستقصي مدى دقتها التاريخية، وتهدف هذه الدراسة بشكل رئيس إلى فهم ما إذا كان القول بتميز خيول كِيرِينَايكي يمثل حقيقة أم أنه مجرد تقليد درجت هذه المصادر على ذكره . وقد قام هذا العمل على دراسة الأدلة الأثرية المحلية الأخرى ذات الصلة وتحليلها، بما في ذلك النقوش المنشورة من قبل وبالرغم من أن معظم النقوش، الموجودة في هاتين المجموعتين، دُرست ونُشرت في السابق، إلا أن التعرض للخيول كان قليلًا، ولذلك، .IGCyr و IRCyr المجموعتين الرقميتين فإن المنهجية المتبعة هنا تهدف إلى تكوين فكرة عن الخيول باستخدام الأدلة المحلية مع التركيز على المصطلحات اللغوية التي تظهر ممارسة الفروسية فس كيرينايكي والأسماء الشخصية المركبة من كلمتين إحداهما كلمة حصان في كِيرِينَايكي لتبيان نمطًا معينًا في التسمية المحلية. ومن المثير للاهتمام أن الأدلة الكتابية والأثرية المحلية تزودنا بصورة مماثلة لتلك التي قدمتها المصادر الأدبية القديمة فيما يتعلق بتربية الخيول في كِيرِينَايكي، وتدريب سائقي العربات ومشاركتهم المتميزة في السباقات الرياضة الإغريقية والرومانية خارج الإقليم .
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British Institute for Libyan & Northern African Studies
References
References
Aelian, Characteristics of Animals, III.2; XIV.10. Available at: https://archive.org/details/L446AelianCharacteristicsOfAnimalsI15; https://archive.org/details/L449AelianCharacteristicsOfAnimalsIII1217, (accessed 11 October 2021).Google Scholar
Athenaeus, . The Deipnosophists. Translation by Gulick, Charles Burton. 1927–1941. London, W. Heinemann.Google Scholar
Callimachus, . Aetia, the Victory of Berenice II. Book III. Available at: https://dcc.dickinson.edu/callimachus-aetia/book-3/victory-berenice (accessed 23 October 2022).Google Scholar
CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, consilio et auctoritate Academiae litterarum regiae Borussciae editum (Berlin 1863).Google Scholar
Dionysius of Alexandria (Periegetes) ‘Διονυσιου ὀικουμɛνης πɛριηγησις’. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UjJFAAAAMAAJ&g=RA1-PA190&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=cyre&f=false (accessed 22 December 2021).Google Scholar
Diodorus of Sicily. The Bibliotheca Historica. Book XVII. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0083%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D49%3Asection%3D2 (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Expositio Totius Mundi et Gentium.1966. Introduction, texte critique. Traduction, notes et commentaire, par Jean Rougé, Paris: Éditions du Cerf.Google Scholar
GVCyr = Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. 2017. Greek Verse Inscriptions of Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, with help from Joyce M. Reynolds and Charlotte Roueché. CRR-MM, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna. ISBN 97888 98010684, http://doi.org/10.6092/UNIBO/IGCYRG VCYR. Available at: https://igcyr.unibo.it/ (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Herodotus, . 1950. The Histories, Books iii–iv. Translated by Godley, A.D.. Loeb Classical Library. William Heinemann LTD, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Herodotus, . The Histories. IV. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D4&force=y (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Herodotus, , The Histories, Book IV. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0125%3Abook%3D4 (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Hyginus, , Astronomica 2, Fables 2.18–43. Available at: http://www.theoi.com/Text/HyginusAstronomica2.html. (accessed 2 August 2021).Google Scholar
IGCyr = Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. 2017. Inscriptions of Greek Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, Hugues Berthelot, with help from Simona Antolini, Silvia Maria Marengo and Emilio Rosamilia; Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. Greek Verse Inscriptions of Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, with help from Joyce M. Reynolds and Charlotte Roueché. Bologna: CRR-MM, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna. Available at: https://igcyr.unibo.it/ (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
IRCyr= Reynolds, J.M., Roueché, C.M., Bodard, G., 2020. Inscriptions of Roman Cyrenaica. Available at: http://ircyr2020.inslib.kcl.ac.uk (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Oppian, , Cynegetica or the Chase in Colluthus Tryphiodorus. Available at: https://ryanfb.github.io/loebolus-data/L219.pdf, (accessed 20 May 2021).Google Scholar
Pausanias, . Description of Greece. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Paus.%208.15.3&getid=0 , (accessed 11 January 2021).Google Scholar
Pindar, . The Odes of Pindar. Translated by J. Sandys. 1915. Available at: https://ryanfb.github.io/loebolus-data/L056.pdf (accessed 10 October 2020).Google Scholar
Priscian, , Poetae Latini Minores by Nicolas Eloi Lemaire.1825. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xR9BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA279&lpg=PA279&dq=clarorum+mater+equorum&source=bl&ots=_M3Bhtp1dm&sig=ACfU3U0g4n5LFLF1vB50vWqSzaxUhILncA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5v8qjge_xAhUCD2MBHUwmDnwQ6AEwBXoECBcQAw#v=onepage&q=cyrene&f=false (accessed 22 July 2021).Google Scholar
Sophocles, . Electra. Available at: https://ia800304.us.archive.org/35/items/sophoclesstor02sophuoft/sophoclesstor02sophuoft.pdf (accessed 26 July 2021).Google Scholar
Strabo, , Geography XVII. 3. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseuscgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Str.&getid=1 (accessed 10 October 2021).Google Scholar
Synesius, . The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene. Available at: http://www.livius.org/su-sz/synesius/synesius_letters.html (accessed 27 May 2021).Google Scholar
Tacticus, . the Poliorketika. Available at: http://www.aeneastacticus.net/public_html/ab16.htm (accessed 20 October 2022).Google Scholar
Xenophon, . Cyropaed. Book VI. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseuscgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Xen.%20Cyr.&getid=1 (accessed 7 April 2023).Google Scholar
Abdelhamed, M.H. Haroun. 2018a. The Economic Condition of the Main Cyrenaican Cities (North-Eastern Libya) from the Hellenistic to the mid-Roman period: textual analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leicester. Available at: file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/2018AbdelhamedMHHPhD.pdf (accessed 29 April 2020).Google Scholar
Abdelhamed, M.H. Haroun. 2018b. Using the word ‘ἵππος’ ‘horse’ in the structure of the Greek and Roman personal names in Cyrenaica and its probable implications. (Epigraphic Quantitative Analysis). Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 21: 103–108.Google Scholar
Al Mahjub, O. 1978–1979. I mosaici della Villa Romana di Silin. Libya Antiqua 15–16: 69–74.Google Scholar
Asciutti, V. (2004). The Silphium Plant: Analysis of Ancient Sources. Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3166/ (accessed 11 April 2023).Google Scholar
Beauvais, G.E. 2015. Charis and Hybris in Pindaric Cosmology. Unpublished thesis, Bangor University. Available at: *Pindar Pythian 4,5,9 explanation 2015.pdf (accessed 20 June 2023).Google Scholar
Bell, S. 2020. Horse racing in imperial Rome: athletic competition, equine performance, and urban spectacle. The International Journal of the History of Sport. 37 (3–4): 28–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, J.R. 2012. Greek and Roman Festivals: Content, Meaning, and Practice. Oxford University Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bresson, A. 2011. Grain from Cyrene. In: Archibald, Z.H. (ed.), The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 66–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buttrey, T.V. 1997. The coins. In: White, D. (ed.), The Extramural Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Libya, Final Reports 6, University Michigan Monograph 97: 1–66.Google Scholar
Caltabiano, M.C. 1998. Berenice II. Il ruolo di una basilissa rivelato dalle sue monete. In: Catani, E. and Marengo, S. (eds), La Cirenaica in età antica, Atti del convegno Internazionale di studi. Macerata, 18–20 Maggio 1995. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, Pisa-Rome: 97–112.Google Scholar
Carson, A. 1982. Wedding at noon in Pindar's Ninth Pythian. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 23 (2): 121–28.Google Scholar
Chamoux, F. 1985. Du silphion. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J.A. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. BAR (British archaeological reports) International Series 236, Oxford: 165–72.Google Scholar
Christidis, A. F. 2007. A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Davesne, A. 1978–1979. Le stade d'Apollonia de Cyrénaïque. Libya Antiqua 15–16: 245–54.Google Scholar
Dennis, G. 1970. On recent excavations in the Greek cemeteries of the Cyrenaica’. In: Trans. Royal Society Literature. Second Series IX: 177–79.Google Scholar
Devitt, Amanda M.M. 2019. Spectatorship and Fandom of the Roman Chariot Races. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leicester.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2000. Le dialecte des inscriptions grecques de Cyrène. Karthago 25. C.E.A.M, Paris.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2002. Une épigramme de Cyrène pour deux athlètes. In: Archeologia Cirenaica. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Urbino, 4–5 luglio 1988. Quaderni di Archeologia della Libya 16: 145–49.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2016. Le toponyme Ptolemaion dans les inscriptions de Cyrène: un essai de clarification. Revue des Études Grecques (REG). 129: 39–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaghy, T. (2014). Horse Breeds and Breeding in the Greco-Persian World: 1st and 2nd Millennium BC. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Google Scholar
Dubois, L. 2000. Ηippolytos and Lysippos; remarks on some compounds in Ἱππο-, -ιππιος. In: Hornblower, S. and Matthews, E. (eds), Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence. Proceedings of the British Academy 104, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 41–52.Google Scholar
Elrashedy, F. 1985. Attic imported pottery in classical Cyrenaica. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Paper I, BAR International Series 236: 205–17.Google Scholar
Fantham, E. 1995. Women in the Classical World: Image and Text. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 1987. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M., Osborne, M.J., Byrne, S.G. and Matthews, E. (1994). A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. II. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 1997. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 3A. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 2000. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 3B. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P. M. and Matthews, E. 2018. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Available at: http://clas-lgpn5.classics.ox.ac.uk:8080/exist/apps/lgpn1-search/index.html (accessed 14 August 2022).Google Scholar
Humphrey, J H., Sear, F.B. and Vickers, M. 1977. Aspects of the circus at Lepcis Magna. Estratto da «Libya Antiqua». Vol. IX–X: 25–115. 1972–1973. The Department of Antiquities, Tripoli.Google Scholar
Hyland, A. 1990. Equus: The Horse in the Roman World. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Jones, A.H.M. 1971. The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces. Oxford, Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Jones, G.D.B. 1985. Beginnings and endings in Cyrenaican cities. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers I, BAR International Series 236, Oxford: 27–41.Google Scholar
Kane, S.E. 2003. Heroized riders from the Wadi bel Gadir sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Quaderni di archeologia della Libya 18: 27–34.Google Scholar
Kennell, N.M. 2006. Ephebeia. A Register of Greek Cities with Citizen Training Systems in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Hildesheim, Weidmann.Google Scholar
Kennell, N.M. 2009. The Greek ephebate in the Roman period. The International Journal of the History of Sport 26: 323–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, P.M. 2013. Cyrenaica (Libya Archaeological Guides). Silphium Press. London: The Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Khan, Y.Z.N. 2002. A Commentary on Dionysius of Alexandria's Guide to the Inhabited World, 174–382. Doctoral thesis, University of London. Available at: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1317688/1/270944.pdf (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Kraeling, C.H. 1962. Ptolemais, City of the Libyan Pentapolis. The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications 90. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Klecel, W. and Martyniuk, E. 2021. From the Eurasian steppes to the Roman circuses: a review of early development of horse breeding and management. Animals (Basel), Jun 22, 11(7): 1859. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8300240/ (accessed 14 April 2022).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, T.E. 2023. The Baran Ratio, investment, and British economic growth and development. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 46 (1): 142–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langdon, J. 1982. The economics of horses and oxen in medieval England. The Agricultural History Review 30 (1): 31–40. Available at: https://www.bahs.org.uk/AGHR/ARTICLES/30n1a3.pdf (accessed 25 June 2023).Google Scholar
Laronde, A. 1987. Cyrène et la Libye hellénistique. Libykai historiai: de l’époque républicaine au principat d'Auguste. Études d'Antiquités Africaines. Paris, Éditions du Centre de la Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Le Quellec, J-L. 2012. Rock art, scripts and proto-scripts in Africa: the Libyco-Berber Example. African History 2: 1–29.Google Scholar
Mann, C. and Scharff, S. 2020. Horse races and chariot races in Ancient Greece: struggling for eternal glory. The International Journal of the History of Sport 37 (3–4): 163–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marini, S., De Faucamberge, E. and Katab, M.N. 2010. Discovery of a rock art site in Cyrenaica (Libya): Kaf Tahr. Academic Journal: L'Anthropologie. April–May, 114 (2): 275–87.Google Scholar
Marshall, E. 1997. The ideology and reception: reading symbols of Roman Cyrene. In: Parkins, H.M. (ed.), Roman Urbanism: Beyond the Consumer City. London: Routledge: 173–209.Google Scholar
Merante, M.M. 2017. A Universal Display? Investigating the Role of Panathenaic Amphorae in the British Museum. Unpublished thesis, University of Pittsburgh. Available at: http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/33573/1/merantemm_etdPitt2017.pdf, (accessed 13 July 2023).Google Scholar
Nelson, T.J. 2020. Attalid aesthetics: the Pergamene ‘baroque’ reconsidered. Journal of Hellenic Studies 140: 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popkin, M.L. Roosters, columns, and Athena on early Panathenaic prize amphoras: symbols of a new Athenian identity. Hesperia 81 (2): 207–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Remijsen, S. 2009. Challenged by Egyptians: Greek sports in the third century BC. The International Journal of the History of Sport. 26 (2): 246–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, E.S.G. 1927. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Cyrenaica. London, British Museum/Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Stucchi, S. 1975. Architettura cirenaica. Monografie di archeologia libica 9. ‘L'Erma’ di Bretschneider, Rome.Google Scholar
Suliaman, A. 2017. The Impact of the Italian Occupation of Cyrenaica with Reference to Benghazi, 1911–1942. Unpublished PhD thesis, Bangor University. Available at: https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-impact-of-the-italian-occupation-of-cyrenaica-with-reference-to-benghazi-19111942(f64a09b8-e5d7-4ff4-be16-3ed4d40de8c9).html (accessed 3 January 2021).Google Scholar
UNESCO. Project for recording and protecting the site of Gasr Libya (in Arabic). 2017. Libyan Department of Antiquities and UNESCO.Google Scholar
Vickers, M.J. and Bazama, A. 1971. A fifth century BC tomb in Cyrenaica. Libya Antiqua: 8: 69–84.Google Scholar
Ward-Perkins, J.B. and Goodchild, R.G. 2003. In: Reynolds, J. M (ed.), Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica. Society for Libyan Studies Monograph 4, London.Google Scholar
Willekes, C. 2013. From Steppe to Stable: Horses and Horsemanship in the Ancient World. Doctoral thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary. Canada. Available at: https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/27c308f4-35e8-4f0c-9258-3fd54b8055a0/content (accessed 7 July 2023).Google Scholar
Wright, G.R.H. 1963. Excavations at Tocra incorporating archaeological evidence of a community of the Diaspora. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 95: 22–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, J. 1982. Libya: A Modern History. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Aelian, Characteristics of Animals, III.2; XIV.10. Available at: https://archive.org/details/L446AelianCharacteristicsOfAnimalsI15; https://archive.org/details/L449AelianCharacteristicsOfAnimalsIII1217, (accessed 11 October 2021).Google Scholar
Athenaeus, . The Deipnosophists. Translation by Gulick, Charles Burton. 1927–1941. London, W. Heinemann.Google Scholar
Callimachus, . Aetia, the Victory of Berenice II. Book III. Available at: https://dcc.dickinson.edu/callimachus-aetia/book-3/victory-berenice (accessed 23 October 2022).Google Scholar
CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, consilio et auctoritate Academiae litterarum regiae Borussciae editum (Berlin 1863).Google Scholar
Dionysius of Alexandria (Periegetes) ‘Διονυσιου ὀικουμɛνης πɛριηγησις’. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UjJFAAAAMAAJ&g=RA1-PA190&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=cyre&f=false (accessed 22 December 2021).Google Scholar
Diodorus of Sicily. The Bibliotheca Historica. Book XVII. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0083%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D49%3Asection%3D2 (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Expositio Totius Mundi et Gentium.1966. Introduction, texte critique. Traduction, notes et commentaire, par Jean Rougé, Paris: Éditions du Cerf.Google Scholar
GVCyr = Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. 2017. Greek Verse Inscriptions of Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, with help from Joyce M. Reynolds and Charlotte Roueché. CRR-MM, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna. ISBN 97888 98010684, http://doi.org/10.6092/UNIBO/IGCYRG VCYR. Available at: https://igcyr.unibo.it/ (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Herodotus, . 1950. The Histories, Books iii–iv. Translated by Godley, A.D.. Loeb Classical Library. William Heinemann LTD, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Herodotus, . The Histories. IV. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D4&force=y (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Herodotus, , The Histories, Book IV. Available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0125%3Abook%3D4 (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Hyginus, , Astronomica 2, Fables 2.18–43. Available at: http://www.theoi.com/Text/HyginusAstronomica2.html. (accessed 2 August 2021).Google Scholar
IGCyr = Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. 2017. Inscriptions of Greek Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, Hugues Berthelot, with help from Simona Antolini, Silvia Maria Marengo and Emilio Rosamilia; Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. Greek Verse Inscriptions of Cyrenaica in collaboration with Alice Bencivenni, with help from Joyce M. Reynolds and Charlotte Roueché. Bologna: CRR-MM, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna. Available at: https://igcyr.unibo.it/ (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
IRCyr= Reynolds, J.M., Roueché, C.M., Bodard, G., 2020. Inscriptions of Roman Cyrenaica. Available at: http://ircyr2020.inslib.kcl.ac.uk (accessed 22 October 2022).Google Scholar
Oppian, , Cynegetica or the Chase in Colluthus Tryphiodorus. Available at: https://ryanfb.github.io/loebolus-data/L219.pdf, (accessed 20 May 2021).Google Scholar
Pausanias, . Description of Greece. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Paus.%208.15.3&getid=0 , (accessed 11 January 2021).Google Scholar
Pindar, . The Odes of Pindar. Translated by J. Sandys. 1915. Available at: https://ryanfb.github.io/loebolus-data/L056.pdf (accessed 10 October 2020).Google Scholar
Priscian, , Poetae Latini Minores by Nicolas Eloi Lemaire.1825. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xR9BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA279&lpg=PA279&dq=clarorum+mater+equorum&source=bl&ots=_M3Bhtp1dm&sig=ACfU3U0g4n5LFLF1vB50vWqSzaxUhILncA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5v8qjge_xAhUCD2MBHUwmDnwQ6AEwBXoECBcQAw#v=onepage&q=cyrene&f=false (accessed 22 July 2021).Google Scholar
Sophocles, . Electra. Available at: https://ia800304.us.archive.org/35/items/sophoclesstor02sophuoft/sophoclesstor02sophuoft.pdf (accessed 26 July 2021).Google Scholar
Strabo, , Geography XVII. 3. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseuscgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Str.&getid=1 (accessed 10 October 2021).Google Scholar
Synesius, . The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene. Available at: http://www.livius.org/su-sz/synesius/synesius_letters.html (accessed 27 May 2021).Google Scholar
Tacticus, . the Poliorketika. Available at: http://www.aeneastacticus.net/public_html/ab16.htm (accessed 20 October 2022).Google Scholar
Xenophon, . Cyropaed. Book VI. Available at: http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseuscgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&query=Xen.%20Cyr.&getid=1 (accessed 7 April 2023).Google Scholar
Abdelhamed, M.H. Haroun. 2018a. The Economic Condition of the Main Cyrenaican Cities (North-Eastern Libya) from the Hellenistic to the mid-Roman period: textual analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leicester. Available at: file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/2018AbdelhamedMHHPhD.pdf (accessed 29 April 2020).Google Scholar
Abdelhamed, M.H. Haroun. 2018b. Using the word ‘ἵππος’ ‘horse’ in the structure of the Greek and Roman personal names in Cyrenaica and its probable implications. (Epigraphic Quantitative Analysis). Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 21: 103–108.Google Scholar
Al Mahjub, O. 1978–1979. I mosaici della Villa Romana di Silin. Libya Antiqua 15–16: 69–74.Google Scholar
Asciutti, V. (2004). The Silphium Plant: Analysis of Ancient Sources. Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3166/ (accessed 11 April 2023).Google Scholar
Beauvais, G.E. 2015. Charis and Hybris in Pindaric Cosmology. Unpublished thesis, Bangor University. Available at: *Pindar Pythian 4,5,9 explanation 2015.pdf (accessed 20 June 2023).Google Scholar
Bell, S. 2020. Horse racing in imperial Rome: athletic competition, equine performance, and urban spectacle. The International Journal of the History of Sport. 37 (3–4): 28–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, J.R. 2012. Greek and Roman Festivals: Content, Meaning, and Practice. Oxford University Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bresson, A. 2011. Grain from Cyrene. In: Archibald, Z.H. (ed.), The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 66–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buttrey, T.V. 1997. The coins. In: White, D. (ed.), The Extramural Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Libya, Final Reports 6, University Michigan Monograph 97: 1–66.Google Scholar
Caltabiano, M.C. 1998. Berenice II. Il ruolo di una basilissa rivelato dalle sue monete. In: Catani, E. and Marengo, S. (eds), La Cirenaica in età antica, Atti del convegno Internazionale di studi. Macerata, 18–20 Maggio 1995. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, Pisa-Rome: 97–112.Google Scholar
Carson, A. 1982. Wedding at noon in Pindar's Ninth Pythian. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 23 (2): 121–28.Google Scholar
Chamoux, F. 1985. Du silphion. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J.A. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. BAR (British archaeological reports) International Series 236, Oxford: 165–72.Google Scholar
Christidis, A. F. 2007. A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Davesne, A. 1978–1979. Le stade d'Apollonia de Cyrénaïque. Libya Antiqua 15–16: 245–54.Google Scholar
Dennis, G. 1970. On recent excavations in the Greek cemeteries of the Cyrenaica’. In: Trans. Royal Society Literature. Second Series IX: 177–79.Google Scholar
Devitt, Amanda M.M. 2019. Spectatorship and Fandom of the Roman Chariot Races. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leicester.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2000. Le dialecte des inscriptions grecques de Cyrène. Karthago 25. C.E.A.M, Paris.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2002. Une épigramme de Cyrène pour deux athlètes. In: Archeologia Cirenaica. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Urbino, 4–5 luglio 1988. Quaderni di Archeologia della Libya 16: 145–49.Google Scholar
Dobias-Lalou, C. 2016. Le toponyme Ptolemaion dans les inscriptions de Cyrène: un essai de clarification. Revue des Études Grecques (REG). 129: 39–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaghy, T. (2014). Horse Breeds and Breeding in the Greco-Persian World: 1st and 2nd Millennium BC. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Google Scholar
Dubois, L. 2000. Ηippolytos and Lysippos; remarks on some compounds in Ἱππο-, -ιππιος. In: Hornblower, S. and Matthews, E. (eds), Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence. Proceedings of the British Academy 104, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 41–52.Google Scholar
Elrashedy, F. 1985. Attic imported pottery in classical Cyrenaica. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Paper I, BAR International Series 236: 205–17.Google Scholar
Fantham, E. 1995. Women in the Classical World: Image and Text. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 1987. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M., Osborne, M.J., Byrne, S.G. and Matthews, E. (1994). A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. II. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 1997. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 3A. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P.M. and Matthews, E. 2000. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Vol. 3B. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fraser, P. M. and Matthews, E. 2018. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Available at: http://clas-lgpn5.classics.ox.ac.uk:8080/exist/apps/lgpn1-search/index.html (accessed 14 August 2022).Google Scholar
Humphrey, J H., Sear, F.B. and Vickers, M. 1977. Aspects of the circus at Lepcis Magna. Estratto da «Libya Antiqua». Vol. IX–X: 25–115. 1972–1973. The Department of Antiquities, Tripoli.Google Scholar
Hyland, A. 1990. Equus: The Horse in the Roman World. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Jones, A.H.M. 1971. The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces. Oxford, Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Jones, G.D.B. 1985. Beginnings and endings in Cyrenaican cities. In: Barker, G., Lloyd, J. and Reynolds, J. (eds), Cyrenaica in Antiquity. Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers I, BAR International Series 236, Oxford: 27–41.Google Scholar
Kane, S.E. 2003. Heroized riders from the Wadi bel Gadir sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Quaderni di archeologia della Libya 18: 27–34.Google Scholar
Kennell, N.M. 2006. Ephebeia. A Register of Greek Cities with Citizen Training Systems in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Hildesheim, Weidmann.Google Scholar
Kennell, N.M. 2009. The Greek ephebate in the Roman period. The International Journal of the History of Sport 26: 323–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, P.M. 2013. Cyrenaica (Libya Archaeological Guides). Silphium Press. London: The Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Khan, Y.Z.N. 2002. A Commentary on Dionysius of Alexandria's Guide to the Inhabited World, 174–382. Doctoral thesis, University of London. Available at: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1317688/1/270944.pdf (accessed 27 August 2023).Google Scholar
Kraeling, C.H. 1962. Ptolemais, City of the Libyan Pentapolis. The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications 90. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Klecel, W. and Martyniuk, E. 2021. From the Eurasian steppes to the Roman circuses: a review of early development of horse breeding and management. Animals (Basel), Jun 22, 11(7): 1859. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8300240/ (accessed 14 April 2022).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, T.E. 2023. The Baran Ratio, investment, and British economic growth and development. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 46 (1): 142–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langdon, J. 1982. The economics of horses and oxen in medieval England. The Agricultural History Review 30 (1): 31–40. Available at: https://www.bahs.org.uk/AGHR/ARTICLES/30n1a3.pdf (accessed 25 June 2023).Google Scholar
Laronde, A. 1987. Cyrène et la Libye hellénistique. Libykai historiai: de l’époque républicaine au principat d'Auguste. Études d'Antiquités Africaines. Paris, Éditions du Centre de la Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Le Quellec, J-L. 2012. Rock art, scripts and proto-scripts in Africa: the Libyco-Berber Example. African History 2: 1–29.Google Scholar
Mann, C. and Scharff, S. 2020. Horse races and chariot races in Ancient Greece: struggling for eternal glory. The International Journal of the History of Sport 37 (3–4): 163–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marini, S., De Faucamberge, E. and Katab, M.N. 2010. Discovery of a rock art site in Cyrenaica (Libya): Kaf Tahr. Academic Journal: L'Anthropologie. April–May, 114 (2): 275–87.Google Scholar
Marshall, E. 1997. The ideology and reception: reading symbols of Roman Cyrene. In: Parkins, H.M. (ed.), Roman Urbanism: Beyond the Consumer City. London: Routledge: 173–209.Google Scholar
Merante, M.M. 2017. A Universal Display? Investigating the Role of Panathenaic Amphorae in the British Museum. Unpublished thesis, University of Pittsburgh. Available at: http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/33573/1/merantemm_etdPitt2017.pdf, (accessed 13 July 2023).Google Scholar
Nelson, T.J. 2020. Attalid aesthetics: the Pergamene ‘baroque’ reconsidered. Journal of Hellenic Studies 140: 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popkin, M.L. Roosters, columns, and Athena on early Panathenaic prize amphoras: symbols of a new Athenian identity. Hesperia 81 (2): 207–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Remijsen, S. 2009. Challenged by Egyptians: Greek sports in the third century BC. The International Journal of the History of Sport. 26 (2): 246–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, E.S.G. 1927. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Cyrenaica. London, British Museum/Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Stucchi, S. 1975. Architettura cirenaica. Monografie di archeologia libica 9. ‘L'Erma’ di Bretschneider, Rome.Google Scholar
Suliaman, A. 2017. The Impact of the Italian Occupation of Cyrenaica with Reference to Benghazi, 1911–1942. Unpublished PhD thesis, Bangor University. Available at: https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-impact-of-the-italian-occupation-of-cyrenaica-with-reference-to-benghazi-19111942(f64a09b8-e5d7-4ff4-be16-3ed4d40de8c9).html (accessed 3 January 2021).Google Scholar
UNESCO. Project for recording and protecting the site of Gasr Libya (in Arabic). 2017. Libyan Department of Antiquities and UNESCO.Google Scholar
Vickers, M.J. and Bazama, A. 1971. A fifth century BC tomb in Cyrenaica. Libya Antiqua: 8: 69–84.Google Scholar
Ward-Perkins, J.B. and Goodchild, R.G. 2003. In: Reynolds, J. M (ed.), Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica. Society for Libyan Studies Monograph 4, London.Google Scholar
Willekes, C. 2013. From Steppe to Stable: Horses and Horsemanship in the Ancient World. Doctoral thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary. Canada. Available at: https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/27c308f4-35e8-4f0c-9258-3fd54b8055a0/content (accessed 7 July 2023).Google Scholar
Wright, G.R.H. 1963. Excavations at Tocra incorporating archaeological evidence of a community of the Diaspora. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 95: 22–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, J. 1982. Libya: A Modern History. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.Google Scholar