Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-sh8wx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-19T08:19:13.977Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Beyond litigation: Policy work within cause lawyering organizations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

David L. Trowbridge*
Affiliation:
Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA
*
David L. Trowbridge, Middle Tennessee State University Box 29, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA, Email: david.trowbridge@mtsu.edu

Abstract

This article investigates why cause lawyering organizations choose policy work and how policy agendas are set. Interviews and documents from eight legal organizations in the LGBTQ movement reveal that policy work expands the scope of conflict, giving organizations not only more opportunities to act, but potentially providing greater autonomy to lawyers by allowing them to build their own opportunities. Furthermore, policy agendas are not simply tied to litigation and resources. Organizations balance perceptions of opportunity and need with resource availability. These perceptions are often informed by collaborations with state and local organizations, facilitating communication between groups, organizers, and activists at different vantage points. Thus, the nature of a legal organization's multidimensional strategy, which expands opportunities to reach their goals, may be shaping what those goals are. These findings contribute to our understanding of cause lawyering tactics and agendas.

Type
Articles
Copyright
© 2022 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

How to cite this article: Trowbridge, David L. 2022. “Beyond Litigation: Policy Work Within Cause Lawyering Organizations.” Law & Society Review 56(2): 286-308. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12605

References

References

Andersen, Ellen Ann. 2006. Out of the Closets & into the Courts Legal Opportunity Structure and Gay Rights Litigation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Andrews, Kenneth T., and Jowers, Kay. 2018. “Lawyers and Embedded Legal Activity in the Southern Civil Rights Movement.” Law & Policy 40(1): 1032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkles, Gabriel, Gehi, Pooja, and Redfield, Elana. 2010. “The Role of Lawyers in Trans Liberation: Building a Transformative Movement for Social Change.” Seattle Journal for Social Justice 8(2): 579641.Google Scholar
Aron, Nan. 1989. Liberty and Justice for all: Public Interest Law in the 1980's and beyond. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Arrington, Celeste L. 2014. “Leprosy, Legal Mobilization, and the Public Sphere in Japan and South Korea.” Law & Society Review 48(3): 563-93.Google Scholar
Barclay, Scott. 2010. “In Search of Judicial Activism in the Same-Sex Marriage Cases: Sorting the Evidence from Courts, Legislatures, Initiatives and Amendments.” Perspectives on Politics 8(1): 111-26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barclay, Scott, and Chomsky, Daniel. 2014. “How Do Cause Lawyers Decide When and Where to Litigate on Behalf of Their Cause?Law & Society Review 48(3): 595620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barclay, Scott, and Marshall, Anna-Maria. 2005. “Supporting a Cause, Developing a Movement, and Consolidating a Practice: Cause Lawyers and Sexual Orientation Litigation in Vermont.” In The Worlds Cause Lawyers Make: Structure and Agency in Legal Practice, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 171202. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Derrick A. Jr. 1976. “Serving Two Masters: Integration Ideals and Client Interests in School Desegregation Litigation.” The Yale Law Journal 85(4): 470516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, Jeffrey M. 1999. The New Liberalism: The Rising Power of Citizen Groups, 1st ed. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Leonore. 2014. “Getting Queer Priorities Straight: How Direct Legal Services Can Democratize Issue Prioritization in the LGBT Rights Movement.” University of Pennsylvania Journal of Law and Social Change 17(2): 107.Google Scholar
Chen, Alan K., and Cummings, Scott. 2012. Public Interest Lawyering: A Contemporary Perspective. New York: Aspen Publishers.Google Scholar
Chua, Lynette J. 2019. “Legal Mobilization and Authoritarianism.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 15(1): 355-76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Michael D., March, James G., and Olsen, Johan P. 1972. “A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice.” Administrative Science Quarterly 17(1): 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commission on Psychotherapy by Psychiatrists. 2000. “Position Statement on Therapies Focused on Attempts to Change Sexual Orientation (Reparative or Conversion Therapies).” American Journal of Psychiatry 157(10): 1719-21.Google Scholar
Cummings, Scott. 2011. “Privatizing Public Interest Law.” Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics 25: 1.Google Scholar
Cummings, Scott, and NeJaime, Douglas. 2010. “Lawyering for Marriage Equality.” UCLA Law Review 57: 1235.Google Scholar
Daniel, Hilary, and Butkus, Renee. 2015. “Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health Disparities: Executive Summary of a Policy Position Paper From the American College of Physicians.” Annual Internal Medicine 163(2): 135-7.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellmann, Stephen. 1998. “Cause Lawyering in the Third World.” In Cause Lawyering: Political Commitments and Professional Responsibilities, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 349429. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Erskine, Kathen M., and Marblestone, Kathleen. 2006. “The Movement Takes the Lead: The Role of Lawyers in the Struggle for a Living Wage in Santa Monica, California.” In Cause Lawyers and Social Movements, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 249-76. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Flores, Andrew R., and Barclay, Scott. 2016. “Backlash, Consensus, Legitimacy, or Polarization: The Effect of Same-Sex Marriage Policy on Mass Attitudes.” Political Research Quarterly 69(1): 4356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerring, John. 2011. “The Case Study: What it Is and What it Does.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Science, edited by Goodin, Robert E., 1133-65. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, Jennifer. 2006. “A Movement in the Wake of a New Law: The United Farm Workers and the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act.” In Cause Lawyers and Social Movements, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 277301. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Handler, Joel F. 1978. Social Movements and the Legal System: Theory of Law Reform and Social Change. New York: Academic Press Inc.Google Scholar
Hilbink, Thomas. 2006. “You Know the Type: Categories of Cause Lawyering.” Law & Social Inquiry 29(July): 657-98.Google Scholar
Hilson, Chris. 2002. “New Social Movements: The Role of Legal Opportunity.” Journal of European Public Policy 9(2): 238-55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Lynn C. 2001. “Career Activism by Lawyers: Consequences for the Person, the Legal Profession, and Social Movements.” In Legal Professions: Work, Structure and Organization, edited by Van Hoy, J., 181206. Stamford, CT: Emerald Group Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendell, Kate. 2012. “Message from the Executive Director.” On the Docket, NCLR Newsletter, Fall 2012. http://www.nclrights.org/about-us/newsletter-archive/.Google Scholar
Kessler, Mark. 1990. “Legal Mobilization for Social Reform: Power and the Politics of Agenda Setting.” Law & Society Review 24(1): 121-43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingdon, John W. 1984. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Brown: Little.Google Scholar
Komesar, Neil K., and Weisbrod, Burton. 1978. “The Public Interest Law Firm: A Behavioral Analysis.” In Public Interest Law: An Economic and Institutional Analysis, edited by Weisbrod, Burton Allen, Handler, Joel F., and Komesar, Neil K., 80101. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leachman, Gwendolyn. 2014. “From Protest to Perry: How Litigation Shaped the LGBT Movement's Agenda.” UC Davis Law Review 47: 1668.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Sandra. 2006. “To Lead with Law: Reassessing the Influence of Legal Advocacy Organizations in Social Movements.” In Cause Lawyers and Social Movements, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 145-58. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Marshall, Anna-Maria. 2006. “Social Movement Strategies and the Participatory Potential of Litigation.” In Cause Lawyers and Social Movements, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 164-81. Redwood City, CA: Stanford Law Books.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael. 1994. Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization, 1st ed. Chicago, USA: University Of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael, ed. 2006. Law and Social Movements. Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub Co.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael, and Silverstein, Helena. 1998. “Rethinking Law's ‘Allurements’: A Relational Analysis of Social Movement Lawyers in the United States.” In Cause Lawyering: Political Commitments and Professional Responsibilities, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 261-92. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McCarthy, John D., and Zald, Mayer N. 1977. “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory.” American Journal of Sociology 82(6): 1212-41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEvoy, Kieran. 2019. “Cause Lawyers, Political Violence, and Professionalism in Conflict.” Journal of Law and Society 46(4): 529-58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minter, Shannon. 1994. “NCLR Challenges the American Psychiatric Association.” National Center for Lesbian Rights Newsletter, Fall 1994. Periodical Collection, Newsletters, N Folder. GLBT Historical Society Archives and Museum.Google Scholar
Minter, Shannon. 1995. “Youth Project.” National Center for Lesbian Rights Newsletter, Spring 1995. Periodical Collection, Newsletters, N Folder. GLBT Historical Society Archives and Museum.Google Scholar
NCLR Staff. 1993. “New Project Targets Psychiatric Abuse of Gay Youth.” National Center for Lesbian Rights Newsletter, Fall 1993. NAT-NGLTF Box. LGBT Community Center Archive, New York City, NY.Google Scholar
NCLR Staff. 2017. “#BornPerfect: Laws & Legislation by State.” National Center for Lesbian Rights. 2017. http://www.nclrights.org/bornperfect-laws-legislation-by-state/.Google Scholar
Ocamb, Karen. 2012. “Shannon Minter on NARTH Lawsuit Against Psychological Child Abuse Law.” Bilerico Report, LGBTQ Nation. November 6, 2012. http://www.bilerico.com/2012/11/shannon_minter_on_narth_lawsuit_against_psychologi.php.Google Scholar
Piven, Frances Fox, and Cloward, Richard A. 1979. Poor People's Movements: Why they Succeed. How They Fail: Vintage books.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. 2005. “Courting Disaster: Looking for Change in All the Wrong Places.” Drake Law Review 54: 795815.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. 2008. The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarat, Austin, and Scheingold, Stuart A. 2006. Cause Lawyers and Social Movements. Redwood City, CA: Stanford Law Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheingold, Stuart A. 1974. The Politics of Rights: Lawyers, Public Policy, and Political Change. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Seawright, Jason, and Gerring, John. 2008. “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options.” 61 Political Research Quarterly 294: 294308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2004. Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Spade, Dean. 2015. Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics, and the Limits of Law. Revised, Expanded ed. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press Books.Google Scholar
Spade, Dean, and Willse, Craig. 2013. “Marriage Will Never Set Us Free.” Organizing Upgrade: Engaging Left Organizers in Strategic Dialogue. September 6, 2013. http://archive.organizingupgrade.com/index.php/modules-menu/beyond-capitalism/item/1002-marriage-will-never-set-us-free.Google Scholar
Stein, Marc. 2010. Sexual Injustice: Supreme Court Decisions from Griswold to Roe. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, Richard B. 1975. “The Reformation of American Administrative Law.” Harvard Law Review 88(8): 1667–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoddard, Thomas. 1997. “Bleeding Heart: Reflections on Using the Law To Make Social Change.” NYU Law Review 72(5): 977-91.Google Scholar
Stone, Amy. 2012. Gay Rights at the Ballot Box. Minneapolis, USA: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara Z. 2007. Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class, and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago, USA: University Of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarn, Waikeung. 2010. “Political Transition and the Rise of Cause Lawyering: The Case of Hong Kong.” Law & Social Inquiry 35(3): 663-87.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney G. 1994. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Trowbridge, David. 2019. “Engaging Hearts and Minds: How and Why Legal Organizations Use Public Education.” Law & Social Inquiry 44(4): 1196–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanhala, Lisa. 2012. “Legal Opportunity Structures and the Paradox of Legal Mobilization by the Environmental Movement in the UK.” Law & Society Review 46(3): 523-56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanhala, Lisa. 2018. “Is Legal Mobilization for the Birds? Legal Opportunity Structures and Environmental Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Kingdom, France, Finland, and Italy.” Comparative Political Studies 51(3): 380412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Vet, Freek. 2018. “‘When they Come for you’: Legal Mobilization in New Authoritarian Russia.” Law & Society Review 52(2): 301-36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Sophia. 2017. “Cause Lawyering in Revolutionary Ukraine.” Journal of Law and Courts 5(2): 267-88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziv, Neta. 2001. “Cause Lawyers, Clients, and the State: Congress as a Forum for Cause, Lawyering during the Enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act.” In Cause Lawyering and the State in a Global Era, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart A., 211-43. Oxford Socio-Legal Studies. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Zuber, Katherine. 2017. Lobbying to Lawsuits: Optimistic Biases and Tactical Transitions in the Movement for LGBT Equality. Albany, NY: PhD Dissertation State University of New York at Albany.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Boutilier v. INS, 387 U.S. 118 (1967).Google Scholar
Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986).Google Scholar
Doe v. Commonwealth, 403 F. Supp. 1199 (E.D. Va. 1975).Google Scholar
Sharon v. Superior Court, 2 Cal.Rptr.3d 699 (2003).Google Scholar

Interviews

Buseck, Gary. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Leonore. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Cathcart, Kevin. 2016. Interview with author at NYC Lambda Office.Google Scholar
Goldberg, Suzanne. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Gonen, Julie. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Kendell, Kate. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Kendell, Kate. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Kors, Geoff. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Marshall, R. Barrett. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Minter, Shannon. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Minter, Shannon. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Nelson, Amy. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Park, Andrew. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Paschall, Patrick, and DePalma, Laura McMahon. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Pizer, Jennifer. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Sakimura, Cathy. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Sobel, Stacey. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Strock, Lee. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar
Wong, Shin-Ming. 2016. Interview with author. Phone.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Janson. 2017. Interview with author. Phone.Google Scholar