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The Rehabilitation of ʿAlī in Sunnī Ḥadīth and Historiography
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 January 2020
Abstract
After the Prophet Muhammad, the most contested figure in Islamic history would be his son-in-law, ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib. ʿAlī’s political rivals staunchly denounced him, his family and his partisans as impious criminals in his own lifetime and after his death. Shortly after his assassination, the Umayyads succeeded in obtaining the reins of the caliphate and establishing a dynasty that lasted close to a century. Medieval sources indicate that rhetoric and propaganda hostile to ‘Alī permeated public discourse under the Umayyads. Nonetheless, through the efforts of his admirers, ʿAlī became a respected authority in both Sunnī and Shīʿī Islam within a few centuries of his death. His nearly universal portrayal in Muslim literature as a pious authority rather obscures a centuries-long process of contestation and rehabilitation. This study considers the methods that ḥadīth transmitters and scholars employed to reconcile expectations regarding ʿAlī’s character and image in Sunnism with the vast and heterogeneous body of accounts about him. Sunnī scholars made use of their editorial privilege by transmitting selected versions of reports and omitting controversial material.
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References
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44 Al-Nawawī, Ṣaḥiḥ Muslim bi-sharḥ al-Nawawī (Beirut, 1987), iii, p. 221; al-Suyūṭī, Tanwīr al-ḥawālik, pp. 71–72.
45 Al-Fīrūzābādī, Al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, i, p. 39; al-ʿAynī, ʿUmdat al-qārī, iii, p. 237.
46 Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī, Sunan, i, p. 60; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vi, p. 27, vii, p. 110; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, vi, pp. 33, 92, 201, 306, 309, 377; Ibn Māja, Sunan, i, p. 197; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, pp. 171–173, iv, pp. 163–164, viii, p. 189.
47 Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī, Sunan, i, p. 454; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vi, p. 123; al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, ii, p. 275; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, ii, p. 428, iii, pp. 158, 302; Ibn Māja, Sunan, i, p. 597; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, p. 175.
48 Al-Nawawī, al-Majmūʿ sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab (Cairo, 1925), xvi, p. 136.
49 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, i, p. 229; al-Zabīdī, Tāj al-ʿarūs, i, p. 322; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, iii, p. 144.
50 For example, see Q18:37, 22:5, 30:20, 35:11, 40:67.
51 Jalāl al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Suyūṭī, al-Itqān fī ʿulūm al-Qurʼān, (ed.) Saʿīd al-Mandūb (Beirut, 1996), i, p. 373; al-Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, xxx, p. 258.
52 Al-Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, xxx, pp. 256–259.
53 Ibid., xxx, pp. 258–259.
54 Ibid., xxx, pp. 257–258.
55 Al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, v, pp. 251–252; Ibn ʿAsākir, Taʼrīkh madīnat Dimashq, xxiv, pp. 259–260; al-Athīr, Ibn, al-Kāmil fī al-taʼrīkh (Beirut, 1965), iii, p. 477Google Scholar; al-Ṭabarī, Taʼrīkh, iv, p. 198.
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59 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, p. 114, iv, p. 208, vii, p. 140; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, vii, p. 124.
60 ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Ṣan‘ānī, al-Muṣannaf, vii, pp. 300–302; Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī, Sunan, i, p. 460; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, iv, pp. 5, 326, 328; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, p. 212, vi, p. 158; Ibn Abī Shayba, Muṣannaf Ibn Abī Shayba fī al-aḥādīth wa-ʼl-āthār, (ed.) Saʿīd al-Laḥḥām (Beirut, 1989), vii, p. 527; Ibn Māja, Sunan, i, pp. 643–644; Muslim, Ṣaḥīh, vii, pp. 141–142; al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, v, pp. 359–360.
61 Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, iv, p. 326; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, p. 212; Ibn Māja, Sunan, i, p. 644; Muslim, Ṣaḥīh, vii, p. 142.
62 Ibn Abī ʼl-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ, vii, pp. 37–40; Muḥammad ibn Ṭalḥa al-Naṣībī, Maṭālib al-saʼūl fī manāqib Āl al-Rasūl, (ed.) Mājid ibn Aḥmad ʿAṭiyya (Beirut, 2000), pp. 178–188.
63 Ibn Abī ʼl-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ, iv, p. 64; al-Qāḍī Abū Bakr ibn al-ʿArabī, Aḥkām al-Qur’ān, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭṭā (Beirut, 1988), iii, p. 461.
64 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī bi-sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Beirut, [1980]), x, pp. 350–354; al-ʿAynī, ʿUmdat al-qārī, xxii, p. 94.
65 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, p. 352. Al-Iṣbahānī’s work is no longer extant.
66 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vii, p. 73; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, iv, p. 203; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, p. 136.
67 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vii, p. 73.
68 Ibid.
69 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Taghlīq al-taʿlīq ʿalá Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, (ed.) Saʿīd ʿA. Mūsá al-Qazaqī (Beirut and Amman, 1985), v, p. 87.
70 Al-ʿAynī, ʿUmdat al-qārī, xxii, p. 94; Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, p. 351.
71 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, p. 352.
72 Ibn Abī ʼl-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ, iv, pp. 64, xii, p. 88.
73 Al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, ii, pp. 127, 352; al-Ṭabarī, Taʼrīkh, iv, pp. 34, 37, 52, 81; Ibn Aʿtham al-Kūfī, Kitāb al-Futūḥ (Beirut, 1991), iv, pp. 201–202.
74 Abū ʼl-Fidāʼ, al-Mukhtaṣar fī akhbār al-bashar = Tārīkh Abī al-Fidāʼ (Beirut, 1919), i, p. 186 (for a report from al-Shāfi‘ī that identifies ʿAmr and three others as Companions whose testimonies are rejected); al-Dhahabī, Siyar, xiv, p. 133.
75 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vii, p. 73.
76 Crone, God's Rule, pp. 87–93; Elad, Amikam, The Rebellion of Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya in 145/762: Ṭālibīs and Early ʿAbbāsids in Conflict (Leiden, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zaman, Religion and Politics, pp. 33–48.
77 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, pp. 352–354.
78 Ibn Ḥajar claims to have found a variant in Abū Nuʿaym's Mustakhraj that had banī Abī Ṭālib, see Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, p. 352.
79 Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, i, p. 25.
80 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iii, p. 40.
81 For the uncensored reports, see al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, (ed.) Iḥsān ʿAbbās (Beirut, 1979), v, pp. 126–127; Ibn Abī ʼl-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ, xv, p. 176; Ibn Ḥibbān, Kitāb al-Majrūḥīn min al-muḥaddithīn waʼl-ḍu'afā’ wa-ʼl-matrūkīn (Mecca, 1970), i, pp. 157, 250. For reports in which Muʿāwiya's name is replaced with fulān, see ʿAdī, Ibn, al-Kāmil fī ḍuʿafāʼ al-rijāl (Beirut, 1988), iii, p. 419Google Scholar; Ibn ʿAsākir, Taʼrīkh madīnat Dimashq, lix, p. 155; Abū Nuʿaym Iṣbahānī, Dhikr akhbār Iṣbahān (Leiden, 1934), ii, p. 114.
82 Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-ʿIlal, iii, p. 176; Ibn ʿAsākir, Taʼrīkh madīnat Dimashq, lvii, p. 243; Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya waʼl-nihāya, viii, p. 284.
83 Al-Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-kubrā, ii, p. 446; al-Ḥākim al-Naysābūrī, Ma‘rifat ʿulūm al-ḥadīth, p. 211; Ibn ʿAsākir, Taʼrīkh madīnat Dimashq, xlii, p. 17; Muslim, Ṣaḥīh, vii, pp. 123–124.
84 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, pp. 207–208.
85 Abū ’l-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī, Maqātil al-Ṭālibiyyīn, (ed.) Kāẓim Muẓaffar (Najaf, 1965), p. 46; al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, v, p. 113; Ibn Shahrāshūb, Manāqib, iii, p. 184; al-Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, iii, p. 85; Nūr al-Dīn al-Haythamī, Majmaʿ al-zawāʼid wa-manbaʿ al-fawāʼid (Beirut, 1988), v, p. 240.
86 Al-Būṣīrī, Mukhtaṣar ittiḥāf al-sāda (Beirut, 1996), v, p. 503; Ibn Ḥajar ʿAsqalānī, Maṭālib al-ʿĀliya (Riyadh, 1998), xviii, p. 267; Ibn Ḥajar al-Haytamī, Taṭhīr al-janān wa-ʼl-lisān ʻan thalab Muʻāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān, (Ṭanṭā, 1992), p. 210.
87 Al-ʿAynī, ʿUmdat al-qārī, XIX, p. 169; Ibn Aʿtham al-Kūfī, Kitāb al-Futūḥ (Beirut, 1991), IV, pp. 335–336; Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil, iii, pp. 506–507; al-Nasāʼī, al-Sunan al-kubrā, vi, p. 459.
88 Al-ʿAynī, ʿUmdat al-qārī, XIX, p. 169; al-Haythamī, Majmaʿ al-zawāʼid, 5:241; Ibn Abī Ḥātim al-Rāzī, Tafsīr, p. 3295; al-Suyūṭī al-Durr al-manthūr, vi, p. 41.
89 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vi, p. 42. In some recensions, it is also ʿĀʾisha who testifies that the Prophet cursed Marwān's father, see al-Ḥākim al-Naysābūrī, al-Mustadrak, iv, p. 481.
90 ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Ṣan‘ānī, al-Muṣannaf, v, pp. 470–471; Muslim, Ṣaḥīh, v, pp. 152–153.
91 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, vi, p. 191, viii, p. 147.
92 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, p. 44; al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, iii, p. 82.
93 ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Ṣanʿānī, Tafsīr al-Qurʼān, iii, p. 52; al-Dhahabī, Siyar, ii, p. 160; al-Bayhaqī, Dalāʼil al-nubuwwa, iv, p. 73; Ibn Shabba, Taʼrīkh al-Madīna, i, p. 337; al-Suyūṭī, al-Durr al-manthūr, v, p. 32.
94 Al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, v, p. 60; Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, vii, p. 336.
95 Hypothetically, texts could have circulated independently of one another or the less flattering reports about ʿAlī could be more ancient than the ones in his praise.
96 Al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, ii, p. 180; Ibn Shahrāshūb, Manāqib, i, pp. 338–390; Muḥammad ibn Ṭalḥa al-Naṣībī, Maṭālib al-suʼūl, p. 129 (where ʿAlī is compared to Christ in his worship).
97 Ḥabīb ibn Abī Thābit (d. 119/737) narrates reports in which ʿAlī accidentally prays in a state of major impurity and another in which he leads prayer intoxicated, see al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, iv, p. 305; ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Ṣanʿānī, al-Muṣannaf, (ed.) Ḥabīb al-Raḥmān al-Aʿẓamī (Beirut, 1970), ii, p. 350.
98 Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, i, pp. 77, 91, 112; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, ii, pp. 43, viii, pp. 155, 190; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, ii, p. 187.
99 Al-Ṭabarī, Taʼrīkh, iv, p. 30 (where Syrians state that they had heard that ʿAlī did not pray).
100 Al-Haythamī, Majmaʿ al-zawāʼid, ix, p. 204; Muḥibb al-Dīn al-Ṭabarī, al-Riyāḍ al-naḍira fī manāqib al-ʿashara (Beirut, 1984), iii, pp. 145–146; al-Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, x, p. 156.
101 Abū Shujā‘ Shīrūya al-Daylamī, al-Firdaws bi-maʼthūr al-khiṭāb, (ed.) M. Zaghlūl (Beirut, 1986), iii, p. 373 (read li-Fāṭima for li-nā ṭayh); Sulaymān Qundūzī, Yanābīʿ al-mawadda (Qum. 1995), ii, pp. 67, 80, 286.
102 Al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, v, p. 305; Ibn Abī Shayba, Muṣannaf, vii, p. 500; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, iv, p. 369; al-Nasāʼī, al-Sunan al-kubrá, v, pp. 118–119; al-Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, xii, p. 78.
103 Al-Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-kubrā, vii, p. 65.
104 Modarressi, Hossein, “Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur’ān: A Brief Survey,” Studia Islamica LXXVII (1993), pp. 16–22Google Scholar.
105 Al-Nasāʼī, al-Sunan al-kubrá, v, p. 35; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, iv, p. 254; Tirmidhī, Sunan, v, p. 270; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, vii, p. 108.
106 ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Ṣanʿānī, al-Muṣannaf, i, pp. 155–157; Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī, Sunan, i, p. 53; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, pp. 42, 52; Ibn Abī Shayba, Muṣannaf, i, p. 115; Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, al-Musnad, i, pp. 80, 87, 108; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, p. 169.
107 Ḥazm, Ibn, Kitāb al-Fiṣal fī ’l-milal waʼl-ahwāʼ waʼl-niḥal (Cairo, 1904), iv, p. 125Google Scholar.
108 Husayn, “The Memory of ʿAlī”, pp. 103–109.
109 Ibid., pp. 122–133.
110 See al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, xv, pp. 175–176; cf. Suhayla Ḥammād, “Mu‘āwiya raḍiya Allāh ʿanhu al-muftarā ʿalayhi,” al-Madīna, 10 April 2012, https://www.al-madina.com/article/148014/ (accessed 13 May 2019).
111 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, x, pp. 352–354.
112 Yaʿlā, Ibn Abī, Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila (Beirut, 1970), i, p. 393Google Scholar. See also ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-ʿUqaylī, Muʿjam nawāṣib al-muḥaddithīn (Karbalāʾ, 2014), pp. 46–47.
113 Lucas, Constructive Critics, p. 284.
114 Al-Ṭabarī, Taʼrīkh, 7:188. See also E.I.2, s.v. “al-Maʼmūn” (M. Rekaya).
115 Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, al-ʿIqd al-farīd, v, pp. 349–359.
116 Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb fī maʿrifat al-aṣḥāb (Beirut, 1992), iii, p. 1115; Muḥibb al-Dīn al-Ṭabarī, al-Riyāḍ al-naḍira, iii, p. 188.
117 For example, Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Faḍāʼil Amīr al-Muʼminīn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib.
118 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-bārī, vii, p. 47; Ibn Abī Yaʿlā, Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila, i, p. 393. See also Wilferd Madelung, Der Imam al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm und die Glaubenslehre der Zaiditen (Berlin, 1965), pp. 223–228.
119 Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Faḍāʼil Amīr al-Muʼminīn, 147; Kitāb Faḍāʼil al-ṣaḥāba, (ed.) W. ʿAbbās (Beirut, 1983), ii, pp. 564, 671.
120 Lucas, Constructive Critics, p. 285.
121 Ibn Abī Yaʿlā, Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila, i, p. 393. See also Afsaruddin, Excellence, pp. 16–18; Zaman, Religion and Politics, pp. 49–59, 169ff.; E.I.2, s.v. “Imāma” (W. Madelung); “ʿUthmāniyya” (P. Crone).
122 Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, v, p. 7.
123 Ibid., iv, pp. 255, 384, 389, 392.