Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-jbqgn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-27T04:14:30.400Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Negative affect predicts subsequent cognitive change in multiple sclerosis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2009

CHRISTOPHER CHRISTODOULOU ,
PATRICIA MELVILLE ,
WILLIAM F. SCHERL ,
WILLIAM S. MACALLISTER ,
REBECCA L. ABENSUR ,
REGINA M. TROXELL  and
LAUREN B. KRUPP
CHRISTOPHER CHRISTODOULOU*
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
PATRICIA MELVILLE
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
WILLIAM F. SCHERL
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
WILLIAM S. MACALLISTER
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, Department of Neurology, New York University, New York, New York
REBECCA L. ABENSUR
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
REGINA M. TROXELL
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
LAUREN B. KRUPP
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Christopher Christodoulou, Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, HSC T12-028, Stony Brook, New York 11794-8121. E-mail: christopher.christodoulou@stonybrook.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Baseline predictors of cognitive change were explored in a sample of persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). Potential predictors included demographic features, baseline clinical characteristics, and psychological state. Participants were 38 individuals diagnosed with either relapsing remitting or secondary progressive MS who did not meet criteria for a current major depressive episode. Subjects were tested at baseline and approximately 1 year in an ongoing longitudinal study of cognition in MS. Participants completed neuropsychological tests sensitive to impairment in MS. They also completed self-report measures of depression, anxiety, fatigue, apathy, and positive and negative affect. Baseline measures of negative affect (e.g., depressed mood, state anxiety, and negative affective state) consistently predicted cognitive change over the course of the study. Higher baseline levels of negative affect were associated with greater relative declines in cognitive performance. This longitudinal relation occurred in the absence of a cross-sectional relation between negative affect and overall cognition. High baseline negative affect particularly predicted a relative decline in episodic memory for newly learned verbal and visuospatial information. The negative affect measures were unique in their predictive value among all the baseline measures assessed. (JINS, 2009, 15, 53–61.)

Keywords

Multiple sclerosisCognitionEpisodic memoryDepressionAnxietyLongitudinal study
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , January 2009 , pp. 53 - 61
Copyright
Copyright © INS 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Amato, M.P., Ponziani, G., & Amaducci, L. (1999). Cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis: A longitudinal study. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 50(Suppl), 465–468.Google ScholarPubMed
Amato, M.P., Ponziani, G., Siracusa, G., & Sorbi, S. (2001). Cognitive dysfunction in early-onset multiple sclerosis: A reappraisal after 10 years. Archives of Neurology, 58(10), 1602–1606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amato, M.P., Zipoli, V., & Portaccio, E. (2006). Multiple sclerosis-related cognitive changes: A review of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 245(1-2), 41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, T.M. & Anderson, I.M. (1998). Information processing in anxiety: A pilot study of the effect of manipulating 5-HT function. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 12(2), 155–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, P.A. (2005). Longitudinal consistency of the relationship between depression symptoms and cognitive functioning in multiple sclerosis. CNS Spectrums, 10(5), 372–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, P.A., Higginson, C.I., & Randolph, J.J. (2001). Depression in multiple sclerosis: Relationship to planning ability. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7(6), 665–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, P.A., Higginson, C.I., Voss, W.D., Bender, W.I., Wurst, J.M., & Tippin, J.M. (1999a). Depression in multiple sclerosis: Relationship to working memory capacity. Neuropsychology, 13(4), 546–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, P.A., Higginson, C.I., Voss, W.D., Wright, B., Bender, W.I., Wurst, J.M., & Tippin, J.M. (1999b). Depressed mood in multiple sclerosis: Relationship to capacity-demanding memory and attentional functioning. Neuropsychology, 13(3), 434–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, P.A., Rao, S.M., Grafman, J., Bernardin, L., Luchetta, T., Binder, J.R., & Lobeck, L. (1997). Executive functions in multiple sclerosis: An analysis of temporal ordering, semantic encoding, and planning abilities. Neuropsychology, 11(4), 535–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Backman, L., Hassing, L., Forsell, Y., &Viitanen, M. (1996). Episodic remembering in a population-based sample of nonagenarians: Does major depression exacerbate the memory deficits seen in Alzheimer’s disease? Psychology and Aging, 11(4), 649–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beatty, W.W. (1993). Cognitive and emotional disturbances in multiple sclerosis. Neurologic Clinics, 11(1), 189–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, W.W., Blanco, C.R., Wilbanks, S.L., Paul, R.H., & Hames, K.A. (1995). Demographic, clinical, and cognitive characteristics of multiple sclerosis patients who continue to work. Journal of Neurological Rehabilitation, 9, 167–173.Google Scholar
Beatty, W.W., Goodkin, D.E., Beatty, P.A., & Monson, N. (1989a). Frontal lobe dysfunction and memory impairment in patients with chronic progressive multiple sclerosis. Brain and Cognition, 11(1), 73–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, W.W., Goodkin, D.E., Monson, N., & Beatty, P.A. (1989b). Cognitive disturbances in patients with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Archives of Neurology, 46(10), 1113–1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, W.W., Wilbanks, S.L., Blanco, C.R., Hames, K.A., Tivis, R., & Paul, R.H. (1996). Memory disturbance in multiple sclerosis: Reconsideration of patterns of performance on the selective reminding test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18(1), 56–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A.T. & Clark, D.A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 49–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, R.H., Bruce, J.M., Dwyer, M.G., Abdelrahman, N., Hussein, S., Weinstock-Guttman, B., Garg, N., Munschauer, F., & Zivadinov, R. (2006). Neocortical atrophy, third ventricular width, and cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Archives of Neurology, 63(9), 1301–1306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, R.H., Fischer, J.S., Archibald, C.J., Arnett, P.A., Beatty, W.W., Bobholz, J., Chelune, G.J., Fisk, J.D., Langdon, D.W., Caruso, L., Foley, F., LaRocca, N.G., Vowels, L., Weinstein, A., DeLuca, J., Rao, S.M., & Munschauer, F. (2002). Minimal neuropsychological assessment of MS patients: A consensus approach. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(3), 381–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, A., Hannay, J., & Varney, N.R. (1975). Visual-perception of line direction in patients with unilateral brain disease. Neurology, 25(10), 907–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, A.L. & Hamsher, K. deS. (1989). Multilingual aphasia examination (3rd ed.). Iowa City, IA: AJA.Google Scholar
Bergendal, G., Fredrikson, S., & Almkvist, O. (2007). Selective decline in information processing in subgroups of multiple sclerosis: An 8-year longitudinal study. European Neurology, 57(4), 193–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buschke, H. & Fuld, P.A. (1974). Evaluating storage, retention, and retrieval in disordered memory and learning. Neurology, 24(11), 1019–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabeza, R. & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, S. & Macqueen, G. (2004). The role of the hippocampus in the pathophysiology of major depression. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 29(6), 417–426.Google ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S., Marriott, M., Nahmias, C., & MacQueen, G.M. (2004). Lower hippocampal volume in patients suffering from depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(4), 598–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christodoulou, C., Krupp, L.B., Liang, Z., Huang, W., Melville, P., Roque, C., Scherl, W.F., Morgan, T., MacAllister, W.S., Li, L., Tudorica, L.A., Li, X., Roche, P., & Peyster, R. (2003). Cognitive performance and MR markers of cerebral injury in cognitively impaired MS patients. Neurology, 60(11), 1793–1798.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chwastiak, L., Ehde, D.M., Gibbons, L.E., Sullivan, M., Bowen, J.D., & Kraft, G.H. (2002). Depressive symptoms and severity of illness in multiple sclerosis: Epidemiologic study of a large community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(11), 1862–1868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, C.M., James, G., Li, D., Oger, J., Paty, D., & Klonoff, H. (1992). Ventricular size, cognitive function and depression in patients with multiple sclerosis. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 19(3), 352–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delis, D.C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan executive function system. San Antonio, CA: Harcourt Assesment, Inc.Google Scholar
DeLuca, J., Gaudino, E.A., Diamond, B.J., Christodoulou, C., & Engel, R.A. (1998). Acquisition and storage deficits in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(3), 376–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DEsposito, M., Onishi, K., Thompson, H., Robinson, K., Armstrong, C., & Grossman, M. (1996). Working memory impairments in multiple sclerosis: Evidence from a dual-task paradigm. Neuropsychology, 10(1), 51–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, B.J., DeLuca, J., Kim, H., & Kelley, S.M. (1997). The question of disproportionate impairments in visual and auditory information processing in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19(1), 34–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duman, R.S. & Kehne, J.H. (2007). Depression. CNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets, 6(3), 161–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fahlander, K., Berger, A.K., Backman, L., & Wahlin, A. (1999). Depression does not aggravate the episodic memory deficits associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychology, 13(4), 532–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinstein, A., Kartsounis, L.D., Miller, D.H., Youl, B.D., & Ron, M.A. (1992). Clinically isolated lesions of the type seen in multiple sclerosis: A cognitive, psychiatric, and MRI follow up study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 55(10), 869–876.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filippini, G., Munari, L., Incorvaia, B., Ebers, G.C., Polman, C., D’Amico, R., & Rice, G.P.A. (2003). Interferons in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis: A systematic review. Lancet, 361(9357), 545–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. (1997). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
Foong, J., Rozewicz, L., Quaghebeur, G., Davie, C.A., Kartsounis, L.D., Thompson, A.J., Miller, D.H., & Ron, M.A. (1997). Executive function in multiple sclerosis. The role of frontal lobe pathology. Brain, 120(Pt 1), 15–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, I., Newman, T.A., & Gidron, Y. (2004). Stress and exacerbations in multiple sclerosis: Whether stress triggers relapses remains a conundrum. BMJ, 328(7434), 287; author reply 287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geerlings, M.I., Schoevers, R.A., Beekman, A.T., Jonker, C., Deeg, D.J., Schmand, B., Ader, H.J., Bouter, L.M., & Van Tilburg, W. (2000). Depression and risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease. Results of two prospective community-based studies in The Netherlands. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 568–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, R.C., Cupples, L.A., Kurz, A., Auerbach, S., Go, R., Sadovnick, D., Duara, R., Kukull, W.A., Chui, H., Edeki, T., Griffith, P.A., Friedland, R.P., Bachman, D., & Farrer, L. (2003). Depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer disease: The MIRAGE study. Archives of Neurology, 60(5), 753–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gronwall, D.M.A. (1977). Paced Auditory Serial-Addition Task—Measure of recovery from concussion. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44(2), 367–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hintzen, R.Q., Buljevac, D., Hop, W.C.J., & Janssens, A.C.J.W. (2004). Stress and exacerbations in multiple sclerosis—Reply. British Medical Journal, 328(7434), 287–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennekens-Schinkel, A., Laboyrie, P.M., Lanser, J.B., & van der Velde, E.A. (1990). Cognition in patients with multiple sclerosis after four years. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 99(2-3), 229–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joffe, R.T., Lippert, G.P., Gray, T.A., Sawa, G., & Horvath, Z. (1987). Mood disorder and multiple sclerosis. Archives of Neurology, 44(4), 376–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanner, A.M. (2005). Depression and the risk of neurological disorders. Lancet, 366(9492), 1147–1148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessing, L.V. & Andersen, P.K. (2004). Does the risk of developing dementia increase with the number of episodes in patients with depressive disorder and in patients with bipolar disorder? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 75(12), 1662–1666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korostil, M. & Feinstein, A. (2007). Anxiety disorders and their clinical correlates in multiple sclerosis patients. Multiple Sclerosis, 13(1), 67–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krupp, L.B., LaRocca, N.G., Muir-Nash, J., & Steinberg, A.D. (1989). The fatigue severity scale. Application to patients with multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Archives of Neurology, 46(10), 1121–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kujala, P., Portin, R., & Ruutiainen, J. (1997). The progress of cognitive decline in multiple sclerosis. A controlled 3-year follow-up. Brain, 120(Pt 2), 289–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtzke, J.F. (1983). Rating neurologic impairment in multiple sclerosis: An expanded disability status scale (EDSS). Neurology, 33(11), 1444–1452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marin, R.S., Biedrzycki, R.C., & Firinciogullari, S. (1991). Reliability and validity of the Apathy Evaluation Scale. Psychiatry Research, 38(2), 143–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, W.I., Compston, A., Edan, G., Goodkin, D., Hartung, H.P., Lublin, F.D., McFarland, H.F., Paty, D.W., Polman, C.H., Reingold, S.C., Sandberg-Wollheim, M., Sibley, W., Thompson, A., van den Noort, S., Weinshenker, B.Y., & Wolinsky, J.S. (2001). Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: Guidelines from the international panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Annals of Neurology, 50(1), 121–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millefiorini, E., Padovani, A., Pozzilli, C., Loriedo, C., Bastianello, S., Buttinelli, C., Di Piero, V., & Fieschi, C. (1992). Depression in the early phase of MS: Influence of functional disability, cognitive impairment and brain abnormalities. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 86(4), 354–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minden, S.L., Orav, J., & Reich, P. (1987). Depression in multiple-sclerosis. General Hospital Psychiatry, 9(6), 426–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minden, S.L. & Schiffer, R.B. (1990). Affective disorders in multiple sclerosis. Review and recommendations for clinical research. Archives of Neurology, 47(1), 98–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Modrego, P.J. & Ferrandez, J. (2004). Depression in patients with mild cognitive impairment increases the risk of developing dementia of Alzheimer type: A prospective cohort study. Archives of Neurology, 61(8), 1290–1293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohr, D.C., Goodkin, D.E., Bacchetti, P., Boudewyn, A.C., Huang, L., Marrietta, P., Cheuk, W., & Dee, B. (2000). Psychological stress and the subsequent appearance of new brain MRI lesions in MS. Neurology, 55(1), 55–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohr, D.C., Hart, S.L., Julian, L., Cox, D., & Pelletier, D. (2004). Association between stressful life events and exacerbation in multiple sclerosis: A meta-analysis. BMJ, 328(7442), 731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyenhuis, D.L., Luchetta, T., Yamamoto, C., Terrien, A., Bernardin, L., Rao, S.M., & Garron, D.C. (1998). The development, standardization, and initial validation of the Chicago multiscale depression inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 70(2), 386–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyenhuis, D.L., Rao, S.M., Zajecka, J.M., Luchetta, T., Bernardin, L., & Garron, D.C. (1995). Mood disturbance versus other symptoms of depression in multiple sclerosis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1(3), 291–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paterniti, S., Verdier-Taillefer, M.H., Dufouil, C., & Alperovitch, A. (2002). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in elderly people. Longitudinal study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 406–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patten, S.B., Beck, C.A., Williams, J.V., Barbui, C., & Metz, L.M. (2003). Major depression in multiple sclerosis: A population-based perspective. Neurology, 61(11), 1524–1527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patten, S.B., Metz, L.M., & Reimer, M.A. (2000). Biopsychosocial correlates of lifetime major depression in a multiple sclerosis population. Multiple Sclerosis, 6(2), 115–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peyser, J.M., Edwards, K.R., Poser, C.M., & Filskov, S.B. (1980). Cognitive function in patients with multiple sclerosis. Archives of Neurology, 37(9), 577–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piras, M.R., Magnano, I., Canu, E.D., Paulus, K.S., Satta, W.M., Soddu, A., Conti, M., Achene, A., Solinas, G., & Aiello, I. (2003). Longitudinal study of cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: Neuropsychological, neuroradiological, and neurophysiological findings. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 74(7), 878–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radloff, L.S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, S.M., Leo, G.J., Bernardin, L., & Unverzagt, F. (1991a). Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. I. Frequency, patterns, and prediction. Neurology, 41(5), 685–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, S.M., Leo, G.J., Ellington, L., Nauertz, T., Bernardin, L., & Unverzagt, F. (1991b). Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. II. Impact on employment and social functioning. Neurology, 41(5), 692–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, S.M. & the Cognitive Function Study Group of the National Multiple Sclerosis Society. (1990). A manual for the brief, repeatable battery of neuropsychological tests in multiple sclerosis. Milwaukee, WI: Section of Neuropsychology, Medical College of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Sadovnick, A.D., Remick, R.A., Allen, J., Swartz, E., Yee, I.M., Eisen, K., Farquhar, R., Hashimoto, S.A., Hooge, J., Kastrukoff, L.F., Morrison, W., Nelson, J., Oger, J., & Paty, D.W. (1996). Depression and multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 46(3), 628–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savettieri, G., Messina, D., Andreoli, V., Bonavita, S., Caltagirone, C., Cittadella, R., Farina, D., Fazio, M.C., Girlanda, P., Le Pira, F., Liguori, M., Lugaresi, A., Nocentini, U., Reggio, A., Salemi, G., Tedeschi, G., Trojano, M., Valentino, P., & Quattrone, A. (2004). Gender-related effect of clinical and genetic variables on the cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neurology, 251(10), 1208–1214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scherl, W.F., Krupp, L.B., Christodoulou, C., Morgan, T.M., Hyman, L., Chandler, B., Coyle, P.K., & MacAllister, W.S. (2004). Normative data for the selective reminding test: A random digit dialing sample. Psychological Reports, 95(2), 593–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiffer, R.B. & Babigian, H.M. (1984). Behavioral disorders in multiple sclerosis, temporal lobe epilepsy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. An epidemiologic study. Archives of Neurology, 41(10), 1067–1069.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultheis, M.T., Garay, E., & DeLuca, J. (2001). The influence of cognitive impairment on driving performance in multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 56(8), 1089–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultheis, M.T., Garay, E., Millis, S.R., & Deluca, J. (2002). Motor vehicle crashes and violations among drivers with multiple sclerosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 83(8), 1175–1178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shawaryn, M.A., Schultheis, M.T., Garay, E., & DeLuca, J. (2002). Assessing functional status: Exploring the relationship between the multiple sclerosis functional composite and driving. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 83(8), 1123–1129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegert, R.J. & Abernethy, D.A. (2005). Depression in multiple sclerosis: A review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76(4), 469–475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. (1973). The Symbol Digit Modalities Test. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Speck, C.E., Kukull, W.A., Brenner, D.E., Bowen, J.D., McCormick, W.C., Teri, L., Pfanschmidt, M.L., Thompson, J.D., & Larson, E.B. (1995). History of depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Epidemiology, 6(4), 366–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sperling, R.A., Guttmann, C.R., Hohol, M.J., Warfield, S.K., Jakab, M., Parente, M., Diamond, E.L., Daffner, K.R., Olek, M.J., Orav, E.J., Kikinis, R., Jolesz, F.A., & Weiner, H.L. (2001). Regional magnetic resonance imaging lesion burden and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis: A longitudinal study. Archives of Neurology, 58(1), 115–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spielberger, C.D. (1983). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Mind Garden.Google Scholar
Spreen, O. & Strauss, E. (1998). A compendium of neuropsychological tests (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Squire, L.R., Stark, C.E., & Clark, R.E. (2004). The medial temporal lobe. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 279–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squire, L.R. & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991). The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science, 253(5026), 1380–1386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stenager, E., Knudsen, L., & Jensen, K. (1994). Multiple sclerosis: Correlation of anxiety, physical impairment and cognitive dysfunction. Italian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 15(2), 97–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2006). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 20(2), 112–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, J.P. (2002). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Thornton, A.E. & Raz, N. (1997). Memory impairment in multiple sclerosis: A quantitative review. Neuropsychology, 11(3), 357–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Burg, W., van Zomeren, A.H., Minderhoud, J.M., Prange, A.J., & Meijer, N.S. (1987). Cognitive impairment in patients with multiple sclerosis and mild physical disability. Archives of Neurology, 44(5), 494–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Videbech, P. & Ravnkilde, B. (2004). Hippocampal volume and depression: A meta-analysis of MRI studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11), 1957–1966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallin, M.T., Wilken, J.A., & Kane, R. (2006). Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: Assessment, imaging, and risk factors. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 43(1), 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner-Schmidt, J.L. & Duman, R.S. (2006). Hippocampal neurogenesis: Opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment. Hippocampus, 16(3), 239–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect—The Panas scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wild, K.V., Lezak, M., Whitman, R.H., & Bourdette, D.N. (1991). Psychosocial impact of cognitive impairment in the multiple sclerosis patient. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 74.Google Scholar
Zakzanis, K.K., Leach, L., & Kaplan, E. (1998). On the nature and pattern of neurocognitive function in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioural Neurology, 11(3), 111–119.Google ScholarPubMed