Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-01T17:25:15.864Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Cambodia's orphan dance shows: From cultural salvation to child exploitation?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 January 2022

Abstract

In Cambodia, orphan dance shows were once popular as a way to preserve endangered art forms and to cultivate children's dignity and well-being. But they came to be seen as exploitative instead, and today are nearly nonexistent. This article examines the confluence of changes that caused this reversal of opinion. The reversal is due to both covert factors such as changes in constructions of childhood, and overt factors such as changes in audience composition. The rise and fall of Cambodian orphan dance shows took place largely within foreign communities, with little local input.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore, 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Maitrii Aung-Thwin and two anonymous reviewers for substantive comments and helpful suggestions on earlier versions of this article. Research for this article was supported by funding from the Centre for Khmer Studies and the College of Arts and Sciences of the University of Oregon.

References

1 Joan Baez, ‘Cambodia’ (1980); http://www.joanbaez.com/discography/ (last accessed 25 Oct. 2021). While many English speakers assume ‘orphan’ means ‘child whose parents are both deceased’, the Khmer word usually translated as ‘orphan’ can refer to children who lack parental care for whatever reason. Both UNICEF and the Cambodian Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation (MoSVY) use ‘orphan’ to refer to children who have lost at least one parent, but not necessarily both.

2 Margot Filliozat, ‘Volunteer organizations may not be who we think they are’ (2013) https://corporateparadox.wordpress.com/2013/03/22/volunteer-organizations-may-not-be-who-we-think-they-are-child-exploitation-in-action/ (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

3 Guiney, Tess and Mostafanezhad, Mary, ‘The political economy of orphanage tourism in Cambodia’, Tourist Studies 15, 2 (2014): 124Google Scholar.

4 ‘The best interests of the child’ is a child rights principle formalised in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which states that in all actions concerning children, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.

5 Kathie Carpenter, ‘The child as method?’, in Methods, moments, and ethnographic spaces in Asia, ed. Nayantara S. Appleton and Caroline Bennett (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2021), pp. 87–114.

6 An additional 17% of the population are between the ages of 15 and 24; ‘Cambodia’, CIA World Factbook; https://theodora.com/wfbcurrent/cambodia/cambodia_people.html.

7 Sophal Ear, Aid dependence in Cambodia: How foreign assistance undermines democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013).

8 Alpa Dhanani, ‘Identity constructions in the annual reports of international development NGOs: Preserving institutional interests?’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 59 (2019): 1–31.

9 Mary Mostafanezhad, ‘Volunteer tourism and the popular humanitarian gaze’, Geoforum 54 (2014): 114–15; quote on p. 115.

10 Vivianna Zelizer, Pricing the priceless child: The changing social value of children (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Toni Shapiro, ‘Dance and the spirit of Cambodia’ (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1994); Lancy, David F., ‘Accounting for variability in mother-child play’, American Anthropologist 109, 2 (2007): 273CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kristen E. Cheney, Pillars of the nation: Child citizens and Ugandan national development (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Cheney, Kristen E., ‘Killing them softly? Using children's rights to empower Africa's orphans and vulnerable children’, International Social Work 56, 1 (2013): 92102CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Kathie Carpenter, Life in a Cambodian orphanage: A childhood journey for new opportunities (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2021).

12 Carpenter, Kathie, ‘Using orphanage spaces to combat envy and stigma’, Children, Youth and Environments 24, 1 (2014): 124–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Guiney and Mostafanezhad, ‘The political economy of orphanage tourism’.

14 Ibid.; P. Jane Reas, ‘“Children that are cute enough to eat”: The commodification of children in volunteering vacations to orphanages and childcare establishments in Siem Reap, Cambodia’, Tourism Culture & Communication 20, 2–3 (2020): 83–93.

15 The term ‘unparented’ is used to refer to a child who lacks parental care for whatever reason, not only through the death of both parents. G.F. Brockington, ‘The unparented child’, Public Health 59 (1946): 53–4.

16 Paul Cravath, Earth in flower: The divine mystery of the Cambodian dance drama (Holmes Beach, FL: Datasia, 2008), p. 56.

17 Kathie Carpenter, ‘Childhood studies and orphanage tourism in Cambodia’, Annals of Tourism Research 55 (2015): 15–27.

18 I will be using the phrase ‘traditional dance’ to refer to the dances that are typically part of the performance repertoire of orphanages. They usually include what is termed ‘court’, ‘classical’ or ‘apsara’ dances (such as the Blessing Dance), in addition to folk dances (such as the Coconut Dance), as well as dance-drama pieces (such as the Monkey Dance). Cravath, Earth in flower, pp. 373–4.

19 Sasagawa, Hideo, ‘Post/colonial discourses on the Cambodian court dance’, Southeast Asian Studies 42, 4 (2005): 418–41Google Scholar.

20 Denise Heywood, ‘Rodin and dance’, Asian Art, 31 Oct. 2016; https://asianartnewspaper.com/rodin-and-dance/ (last accessed 16 May 2019).

21 Musée Rodin, ‘Rodin and the Cambodian dancers: His final passion’, http://www.musee-rodin.fr/en/exposition/exposition/rodin-and-cambodian-dancers.

22 See Sasagawa, ‘Post/colonial discourses’; and George Groslier, Danseuses cambodgiennes anciennes et modernes (Paris: Augustin Challamel, 1913). The question of whether Khmer dance manifests today in a form with an unbroken lineage back to the Angkor days or whether it has been ‘lost’ and refreshed repeatedly throughout its history, is a controversy that is beyond the scope of this article. The important relevant point here is that today it is a powerful living symbol of continuity with the past, made meaningful and valuable to Cambodians and foreigners in this way.

23 Toni Phim and Ashley Thompson, Dance in Cambodia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 42.

24 Boothby, Neil, ‘Khmer children: Alone at the border’, Indochina Issues 3, 2 (1982): 17Google Scholar.

25 Quoted in Denise Heywood, Cambodian dance: Celebration of the gods (Bangkok: River Books, 2008), pp. 83–4.

26 Heywood, Cambodian dance, p. 84.

27 Shapiro, ‘Dance and the spirit of Cambodia’, p. 282.

28 Fiona Terry, Condemned to repeat? The paradox of humanitarian action (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), p. 145.

29 ‘Orphan’ and ‘orphanage’ were often used interchangeably with ‘unaccompanied minor’ and ‘children's centre’, the officially preferred terms. The view of some volunteers was that ‘unaccompanied minors’ was a euphemism for ‘orphans’. Arthur Defehr, ‘Landbridge — a personal perspective’, 30 Sept. 2005; http://artdefehr.com/documents/bl012-a-050930landbridgeand-cambodia1.pdf (last accessed 1 Jan. 2021).

30 Larry C. Thompson, Refugee workers in the Indochina exodus, 1975–1982 (London: Mcfarland & Co., 2010), pp. 225, 271.

31 Joanna T. Pecore, ‘Sounding the spirit of Cambodia: The living tradition of Khmer music and dance-drama in a Washington, DC community’ (PhD diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2004), p. 122.

32 Felicia McCarren, French moves: The cultural politics of Le Hip Hop (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 127; Ann Whitcher, ‘Film documents plight of Cambodian dancers’, UB Reporter, 17 Oct. 2002; https://www.buffalo.edu/ubreporter/archive/vol34/vol34n4a/articles/CambodiaFilm.html (last accessed 25 Oct. 2021).

33 Langford, Anne, ‘Working with Cambodian refugees’, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 12, 2 (1980): 122Google Scholar.

34 Pecore, ‘Sounding the spirit of Cambodia’.

35 Josephine Reynell, Political pawns: Refugees on the Thai–Kampuchea border (Oxford: Refugee Studies Programme, 1982), p. 158.

36 Charlotte Knaub, A memoir: Delivering health care in Cambodian refugee camps, 1979–1980 (Bloomington, IN: Balboa, 2014).

37 Benoît Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia one child at a time (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2013), pp. 40, 412.

38 Boothby, Khmer children, p. 6.

39 For example, Sato Nao found that fully 30% of the households in the village she studied ‘made their children move to another household’ as a mutual assistance system. While she found that the preference was to move children to kin who were more wealthy and/or had fewer children, extended kin networks were disrupted in the refugee camps. Nao, Sato, ‘The function of mutual assistance through children's inter-household mobility in rural Cambodia’, Southeast Asian Studies 47, 2 (2009): 180209Google Scholar.

40 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia.

41 Jan Williamson, ‘Centres for unaccompanied children in Khao I Dang holding centre’, Disasters 5 (1981): 100–104.

42 Phaly Nuon, ‘My name is Phaly’; http://www.eglobalfamily.org/phaly-story.html (last accessed 8 Sept. 2016).

43 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia, p. 57.

44 Carpenter, ‘Using orphanage spaces’.

45 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia, p. 47.

46 Reynell, Political pawns, p. 106.

47 Claudia Nelson, ‘Drying the orphan's tear: Changing representations of the dependent child in America, 1870–1930’, Children's Literature 29 (2001): 52–70.

48 Yumiko Suenobo, Management of education systems in zones of conflict-relief operations: A case-study in Thailand (Bangkok: UNESCO, 1995).

49 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia, p. 73.

50 Ibid., p. 121.

51 Seth Mydans, ‘Madame Kamel wages an exotic war for an ancient culture’, Smithsonian 2 (1980), pp. 118–25; Dana Tofig, ‘Dancers bring Cambodian culture to life’, Hartford Courant, 27 Oct. 1991.

52 Ben Kiernan, ‘Kampuchea stumbles to its feet’, in Peasants and politics in Kampuchea 19421981, ed. Ben Kiernan and Chanthou Boua (London: Zed, 1986), pp. 365–7.

53 Interview: Francois Bugnion, ‘Cambodia: Massive aid effort planted seeds of recovery in former “Killing Fields”’, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 11 Dec. 2009; https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/interview/cambodia-interview-011209.htm (last accessed 1 Jan. 2021).

54 Nelson, ‘Drying the orphan's tear’.

55 Volkman, Toby, ‘Imagining Cambodia’, Cultural Survival Quarterly 14, 3 (1990)Google Scholar; https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/imagining-cambodia (last accessed 1 Jan. 2021).

56 Marita Eastmond, ‘Reconstruction and the politics of homecoming: Repatriation of refugees in Cambodia’ (Working Paper no. 1, Department of Social Anthropology, Gothenburg University, 2002), p. 6.

57 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia.

58 CSCFO (n.d.); http://www.cambokidsfund.org/Site/index.php?p=about (last accessed 8 Sept. 2016); NACOPCA (n.d.); http://nacaorphanage.weebly.com (last accessed 1 Jan. 2021).

59 Rachel Scollay and Lon Nara, ‘Slum children dance for their supper’, Phnom Penh Post, 1 Apr. 2002. While CLCA turned out to be a questionable organisation which was shut down in 2003, it was the corruption of this particular organisation that was targeted, not the use of dance performances to attract visitors and donations. The children were placed into a new orphanage, which continued its own dance programme.

60 It is now known as the Khmer Cultural Development Institute (KCDI). Quote from: Catherine Geach, ‘Khmer Cultural Development Institute history’ (2013); https://kcdi-cambodia.org/history/ (last accessed 25 Oct. 2021).

61 In 1992, Krousar Thmey dropped ‘orphanage’ from their name. They are now a highly respected educational centre for children with disabilities.

62 Duchâteau-Arminjon, Healing Cambodia, p. 174.

63 Geraldine Cox, Home is where the heart is (Sydney: Macmillan, 2000), p. 327.

64 Molly Ball, ‘Nightly Khmer dance back in Phnom Penh after 25 years’, Cambodia Daily, 25 Dec. 2001.

65 Hugo Slim, ‘Dissolving the difference between humanitarianism and development: The mixing of a rights-based solution’, Development in Practice 10, 3/4 (2000): 491–4.

66 Kate Manzo, ‘Africa in the rise of rights-based development’, Geoforum 34 (2003): 451.

67 Helena Domashneva, ‘NGOs in Cambodia: It's complicated’, The Diplomat, 3 Dec. 2013.

68 Prigent, Steven, ‘Les actions de développement face au problème de l'enfant-vagabond, (Cambodge)’, Autrepart 72, 4 (2014): 201–18Google Scholar.

69 Chan Thul Prak, ‘Official accused of extorting orphanage dancers’, Cambodia Daily, 5 Jan. 2005.

70 Lonely Planet, ‘Visit an orphanage in Phnom Penh’, (2005); https://www.lonelyplanet.com/thorntree/forums/asia-south-east-asia-mainland/topics/visit-an-orphanage-in-phnom-penh?page=1 (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

71 Carpenter, ‘Childhood studies and orphanage tourism’.

72 While corruption and misuse of donations is a legitimate concern, such misuse is not ubiquitous — many orphanages have transparent finances with detailed accounting publicly available, and boards which provide effective oversight.

73 Lonely Planet, ‘Visit an orphanage near Siem Reap and make the highlight of your trip’, (2008); https://www.lonelyplanet.com/thorntree/forums/responsible-travel/topics/visit-an-orphanage-near-siem-reap-and-make-the-highlight-of-your-trip (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

74 Travelpod, ‘Cambodian orphan family centre organization part 1’, (2009); http://www.travelpod.com/travel-blog-entries/wendyworld/4/1261194608/tpod.html (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

75 Friends International, ‘Myths and realities about orphanages in Cambodia’, (2011); http://www.friends-international.org/ourprojects/myth-realities_detail.asp (last accessed 8 Sept. 2016).

76 Jessica Marati, ‘Orphanage tourism and Cambodia's fight to end it’, Gadling, 30 Dec. 2011; http://gadling.com/2011/12/30/orphanage-tourism-and-cambodias-fight-to-end-it/ (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

77 Tuchman-Rosta, Celia, ‘From ritual form to tourist attraction: Negotiating the transformation of classical Cambodian dance in a changing world’, Asian Theatre Journal 31, 2 (2014): 525CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Nicky Sullivan, ‘Apsara dancing’, Travelfish, 29 Nov. 2016; http://www.travelfish.org/sight_profile/cambodia/western_cambodia/siem_reap/siem_reap/796 (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

79 Sasagawa, ‘Post/colonial discourses’, p. 419.

80 Friends International, ‘When children become tourist attractions’, 20 Oct. 2011; https://friends-international.org/blog/index.php/when-children-become-tourist-attractions/ (last accessed 1 Jan 2021). Other concerning phenomena set the stage although they are not directly implicated, especially the widespread corruption in transnational adoption from Cambodia, as well as the disquieting rise of sex tourism.

81 Joseph M. Cheer, ‘Preface’, in Modern day slavery and orphanage tourism, ed. Joseph M. Cheer, Leigh Mathews, Kathryn E. van Doore, and Karen Flanagan (Oxfordshire: CABI, 2019), p. xvii.

82 For a review of recent research documenting positive outcomes of residential care, see Carpenter, Life in a Cambodian orphanage, pp. 11–13.

83 Jill Lepore, ‘Baby Doe: A political history of tragedy’, New Yorker, 1 Feb. 2016.

84 Guillou, Anne Yvonne, ‘Western aid workers in Cambodian hospitals: Ethical, professional and social divergences’, Southeast Asia Research 21, 3 (2013): 402–18Google Scholar.

85 Ear, Aid dependence in Cambodia.

86 Prigent, ‘Les actions de développement’.

87 Zelizer, Pricing the priceless child.

88 Marati, ‘Orphanage tourism and Cambodia's fight to end it’.

89 Steve Gourley, ‘The middle way: Bridging the gap between Cambodian culture and children's rights’ (Phnom Penh: NGO Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2009).

90 United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Preamble, Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx (last accessed 17 May 2017).

91 Ledgerwood, Judy L. and Un, Kheang, ‘Global concepts and local meaning: Human rights and Buddhism in Cambodia’, Journal of Human Rights 2, 4 (2003): 531–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

92 Prigent, ‘Les actions de développement’.

93 Guillou, ‘Western aid workers in Cambodian hospitals’, p. 406.

94 Michael Aquino, ‘Orphanages in Cambodia are not tourist attractions’ (2012?); available at https://www.tripsavvy.com/orphanages-in-cambodia-1629144; Steve Vaile, ‘Before you volunteer in Cambodia — why orphanage tourism is a bad idea’, (2014); http://madmonkeyhostels.com/?h2o_blog=volunteer-cambodia-orphanage-tourism-bad-idea (last accessed 26 Apr. 2017).

95 Cheer et al., Modern day slavery and orphanage tourism.

96 Tess Guiney, ‘Orphanage tourism in Cambodia: The complexities of “doing good” in popular humanitarianism’ (PhD diss., University of Otago, 2015), p. 172.

97 Although this phenomenon is frequently mentioned in the literature, on my multiple visits to Siem Reap in 2008–19, I never saw this first-hand so I cannot verify how widespread it was, nor how much it decreased over time in response to criticisms.

98 UNICEF, ‘With the best intentions: A study of attitudes towards residential care in Cambodia’ (Phnom Penh: UNICEF Cambodia, 2011), p. 27.

99 Guiney and Mostafanezhad, ‘The political economy of orphanage tourism’, p. 11.

100 Tuchman-Rosta, ‘From ritual form to tourist attraction’, p. 525.

101 Ruth Emond, ‘I am all about the future world: Cambodian children's views on their status as orphans’, Children & Society, 23 (2009): 411.

102 Amanda Miller, ‘The effect of tourism on the lived experiences of marginalised children and young people in Siem Reap Cambodia’ (PhD diss., University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, 2017), p. 133.

103 Amanda Miller and Harriot Beazley, ‘We have to make the tourists happy: Orphanage tourism in Siem Reap: Cambodia through the children's own voices’, Children's Geographies (2021): 1–13.

104 Carpenter, Kathie, ‘Continuity, complexity and reciprocity in a Cambodian orphanage’, Children & Society 29, 2 (2015): 8594CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carpenter, Life in a Cambodian orphanage.

105 UNICEF, With the best intentions, pp. 8–9.

106 Ibid.

107 Paul Ronalds, ‘Foreword’, in Cheer et al., Modern day slavery and orphanage tourism, p. xiv.

108 Knaub, A memoir, p. 58.

109 Gourley, ‘The middle way’.

110 By this, he does not mean ‘adoption’ in the common Western understanding of the term, involving transfer of legal guardianship and often a severing of relations from the birth family, but a local practice more closely resembling ‘fostering’ or ‘open adoption’. Davis, Erik W., ‘Kinship beyond death: Ambiguous relations and autonomous children in Cambodian Buddhism’, Contemporary Buddhism 16, 1 (2015): 131CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

111 Nancy Smith-Hefner, Khmer American: Identity and moral education in a diasporic community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 123.

112 Capaldi, Mark P., ‘Rethinking independent child migration in Thailand: Victims of exploitation or competent agents?’, Journal of Population and Social Studies 23, 1 (2015): 1632Google Scholar.

113 Such as The Guardian, Atlantic Monthly, Sydney Morning Herald and Al Jazeera.

114 Gordon, Linda, ‘The perils of innocence, or what's wrong with putting children first?’, Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 1, 3 (2008): 331–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 Cheney, Pillars of the nation, p. 11. While Cheney was referring specifically to Uganda, the parallels with Cambodia are relevant and striking.

116 Sakoon N. Singh, ‘Dance as a means of social resurgence in Amitav Ghosh's Dancing in Cambodia’, dialog 19 (2010); Amitav Ghosh, Dancing in Cambodia, at large in Burma (New Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1998).

117 Miller, ‘The effect of tourism’.

118 Czymoniewicz-Klippel, Melina T., ‘Parenting in the context of globalization and acculturation: Perspectives of mothers and fathers in Siem Reap, Cambodia’, Childhood 26, 4 (2019): 525–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

119 Shapiro, ‘Dance and the spirit of Cambodia’, p. 229.

120 David A. Feingold, Waiting for Cambodia (1988); http://www.der.org/films/waiting-for-cambodia.html (last accessed 1 Jan. 2021).