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2. Kunzel, “Professionalization of Benevolence,” 21; Kunzel, Fallen Women, 2.

3. All quotations are from Kunzel, “Professionalization of Benevolence,” 21.

4. Ibid., 34; Fallen Women, 32–33.

5. Kunzel, “Professionalization of Benevolence,” 34; Kunzel, Fallen Women, 128–29.

6. Kunzel, “Professionalization of Benevolence,” 23. The literature on middle-class women's entry into the professions is enormous. On discrimination of women in the professions, see Rossiter, Margaret W., Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982)Google Scholar; Walsh, Mary Roth, “Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply”: Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975 (New Haven, 1977)Google Scholar; Fee, Elizabeth, Disease and Discovery: A History of the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, 1916–1939 (Baltimore, 1987)Google Scholar; Abir-Am, Penina G. and Outram, Dorinda, eds., Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives of Women in Science, 1789–1979 (New Brunswick, 1987)Google Scholar; Hummer, Patricia M., The Decade of Elusive Promise: Professional Women in the United States, 1920–1930 (Ann Arbor, 1979)Google Scholar; Glazer, Penina Migdal and Slater, Miriam, Unequal Colleagues: The Entrance of Women into the Professions, 1890–1940 (New Brunswick, 1987)Google Scholar. On women combining female and professional values, see Morantz-Sanchez, Regina, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 308–9Google Scholar; Melosh, Barbara, The Physician's Hand: Work Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (Philadelphia, 1982), chap. 4Google Scholar; Antler, Joyce, The Educated Woman and Professionalization: The Struggle for a New Feminine Identity, 1890–1920 (New York, 1987)Google Scholar; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (New York, 1991)Google Scholar and “Gender and Professionalization in the Origins of the U.S. Welfare State: The Careers of Sophonisba Breckinridge and Edith Abbott, 1890–1935,” Journal of Policy History 2 (1990): 290–315CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Morton, Marian J., And Sin No More: Social Policy and Unwed Mothers in Cleveland, 1855–1990 (Columbus, 1993), 56Google Scholar; Chambers, Clarke A., “Women in the Creation of the Profession of Social Work,” Social Service Review 60 (March 1986): 1–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Feder, Elizabeth, “The Elite of the Fallen: The Origins of a Social Policy for Unwed Mothers, 1880–1930” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1991), chap. 4.Google Scholar See also Garrison, Dee, Apostles of Culture: The Public Librarian and American Society, 1876–1920 (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Brumberg, Joan Jacobs and Tomes, Nancy, “Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians,” Reviews in American History 10 (June 1982): 275–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Cott, Nancy, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, 1987), chap. 7Google Scholar. The complexity of social work professionalism is discussed in Walkowitz, Daniel J., “The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s,” American Historical Review 95 (October 1990): 1051–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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8. Ibid., 25.

9. Ibid., 36.

10. Ibid., 34; Kunzel, Fallen Women, 128. It is evident from the notes in her article and the bibliography in her book that Kunzel failed to consult the Child Welfare League of America's Bulletin, one of the most important journals of professional social workers for this period.

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14. Ibid., 12.

15. Ibid., 49–51.

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20. Ibid., 357.

21. Ibid., 51; quotation on 87.

22. Ibid., 62; Lubove, Professional Altruist, 47.

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27. Ibid., chap. 7.

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50. Lenroot, “Social Responsibility for the Protection of Children Handicapped by Illegitimate Birth,” 128; “Report of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection on Prenatal and Maternal Care,” CWLA, Bull., new ser., 10 (December 1930): 8, 7.

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68. Donahue, “A Case of Illegitimacy,” 121.

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80. Watson, “The Illegitimate Family,” 112–13.

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82. Illinois Children's Home & Aid Society, Children's Home Finder, new ser., 4 (May–June 1915): 13. For similar sentiments, see Baylor, Edith M. H., “The Necessary Changes to Be Effected in the Methods of Social Service Agencies with Unmarried Mothers,” Hospital Social Service 9 (1922): 155Google Scholar; Drury, Louise, “Milestones in the Approach to Illegitimacy,” pt. 3, Family 6 (June 1925): 98Google Scholar; Colby, M. Ruth, “The Unmarried Mother and Her Baby,” Welfare Magazine 17 (June 1926): 8Google Scholar; Smith, Mary Frances, “The Place of the Maternity Home in a Child Care Program,” CWLA, Bull., new ser., 9 (November 1930): 8–7Google Scholar; Stoneman, “Social Problems Related to Illegitimacy,” Proceedings of the 51st National Conference on Social Work, 147–48.

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85. Richmond, Social Diagnosis, 127, 136, 363.

86. Stoneman, “Adoption of Illegitimate Children,” 8; Illinois Children's Home & Aid Society, Children's Home Finder, new ser., 4 (May-June 1915): 15; Pendleton, “New Aims in Adoption,” 155. See also Murphy, “Mothers and—Mothers,” 171.

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89. Richmond, Social Diagnosis, 103.

90. Ibid., 55.

91. Ibid., 363.

92. Ibid.

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96. Among the roughly 112 primary sources consulted for this article, only seven professional social workers used the term “scientific.” And among these few, there was a wide variety of meanings of the term. Some social workers, undoubtedly with roots in the charity organization society movement, had no difficulty in combining values that may seem contradictory to us. Mabel Mattingly, a child-welfare instructor at Case Western Reserve University, for example, felt no incongruity in urging that “the case worker's approach and treatment should be as scientific as possible, but she must remember always that the eternal values are spiritual ones.” Mattingly, “The Unmarried Mother and Her Child,” 5. See also Murphy, “Mothers and—Mothers,” 172. Melosh, The Physician's Hand, 124–25, notes a similar tendency of public-health nurses to use both scientific and moral language. Other professional social workers who actually used the term “scientific” in connection with illegitimacy usually meant either simple Baconianism—fact collecting and description—or keeping abreast of intellectual developments in other disciplines. See Stoneman, “Adoption of Illegitimate Children,” 8; Watson, “The Illegitimate Family,” 103; Hewins, “A Study of Illegitimacy,” 115; Lundberg, “Unmarried Mothers,” 654; Lenroot, “Social Responsibility for the Care of the Delinquent Girl and the Unmarried Mother,” 78.

97. For similar constructions of professionalism, see the relevant references in note 6 above.

98. Watson, “The Illegitimate Family,” 115.

99. Donahue, A. Madorah, “The Case of an Unmarried Mother Who Has Cared for Her Child, and Succeeded,”Proceedings of the 44th National Conference on Social Work(Chicago, 19171917), 282.Google Scholar

100. Baylor, “The Necessary Changes to Be Effected in the Methods of Social Service Agencies with Unmarried Mothers,” 146.

101. Ibid., See also Drury, “Milestones in the Approach to Illegitimacy,” pt. 3, 98.

102. Dexter, Elizabeth H., “The Worker's Personality in Case Work,” CWLA, Bull., new ser., 5 (15 December 1926): 2.Google Scholar

103. Ibid., 3. For similar expressions, see Bartlett, Harriet M., “Medical Social Work with the Unmarried Mother,” Child 2 (May 1938): 226.Google Scholar