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^{page 65 note 2} Kant, Immanuel, ‘What is Enlightenment?’ [1784], in The Philosophy of Kant: Immanuel Kant's moral and political writings (New York edn. 1949), p. 132.Google Scholar

^{page 66 note 1} Marx, Karl, ‘On the Jewish Question’ [1843], in Early Writings (New York edn. 1964), p. 26.Google Scholar

^{page 66 note 2} Fanon, Frantz, Les Damnés de la terre (Paris, 1961),Google Scholar later translated and published as The Wretched of the Earth (London, 1967).

^{page 66 note 3} See ‘Neo-Colonialism’, in Voice of Africa (Accra), I, 4, April 1961, p. 4.

^{page 66 note 4} Nkrumah, Kwame, Neo-Colonialism: the last stage of imperialism (London, 1965).Google Scholar

^{page 67 note 1} Lemberg, Eugen, Nationalismus (Hamburg, 1964), Vol. I, p. 117.Google Scholar Cf. Vaillant, Janet G. ‘Dilemmas for Anti-Western Patriotism: Slavophilism and Négritude’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), XII, 3, 09 1974, pp. 377–93.Google Scholar

^{page 67 note 2} Other countries, notably Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone, knew far earlier groups of ‘educated Africans’ during the second half of the nineteenth century who fought against cultural imperialism. For example, the Mfantsi Amanbu Fékuw was formed in Cape Coast in 1889 because, as J. Mensah Sarbah put it, the founders ‘dissatisfied with the demoralising effects of certain European influences, determined to stop further encroachments into their nationality’-Kimble, David, A Political History of Ghana, Vol. I,Google ScholarThe Rise of Gold Coast Nationalism, 1850–1928 (Oxford, 1963), p. 150. See also Wauthier, Claude, L'Afrique des Africains (Paris, 1964);Google ScholarGrohs, Gerhard, Stufen afrikanischer Emansipation (Stuttgart, 1967);Google ScholarJuly, Robert W., The Origins of Modern African Thought (London,1968);Google Scholar and Geiss, lmmanuel, The Pan-African Movement translated by Keep, Ann (London, 1974).Google Scholar

^{page 68 note 1} See the autobiography of Gué, Lamine, Itinéraire africain (Paris, 1966).Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 1} Fanon, Frantz, Peau noire, masques blancs (Paris, 1952).Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 2} Senghor, Léopold Sédar, La Communazité française impériale (Paris, 1945), p. 71.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 3} Scnghor, Léopold Sédar, ‘Der senegalesische Weg zum Sozialismus’, in Afrika-Forum (Munich), 9/10, 1970, p. 353.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 4} Senghor, Léopold Sédar, Négritude und Humanismus (Düsseldorf, 1967).Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 5} Senghor, Léopold Sédar, ‘Die Wurzeln der Négritude’, in Afrika Heute 1961, Jahrbuch der Deutsehen Afrikagesellschaft (Köln, 1962), p. 102.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 6} See Grohs, op. cit. p. 187.

^{page 70 note 1} Kamphausen, H., ‘Kritische afrikanische Stimmen zur Négritude’, in Grohs, Gerhard (ed.), Theoretische Probleme des Sozialismus in Afrika (Hamburg, 1971).Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 2} Markovitz, L., Léopold Sedar Senghor and the Politics of Négritude (New York, 1969), pp. 45–6.Google Scholar Similar criticisms are made by Franklin, A., ‘La Negritude, réalité ou mystification?’, in Presence africaine (Paris), XIV, 1953, p. 287.Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 3} Ouologuem, Y., Le Devoir de violence (Paris, 1968).Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 1} Mphahlele, Ezekiel in Transition (Kampala), IX, 1963, p. 7.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 2} For a critique of négritude, see also Grohs (ed.), Theoretische Probleme des Sozialismus in Afrika; Kumerloeve, Arnd, Négritude und afrikanische Kultur (Hamburg, 1971);Google Scholar and Tibi, B., ‘Romantische Entwicklungsideologien’, in Blaetter fuer deutsche und internationale Politik (Cologne), Nos. 5 and 6.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 3} Hennebelle, Guy (ed.), Les Ciridmas africains en 1972 (Paris, 1973).Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 4} Amin, Samir, L'Afrique de l'ouest bloquée (Paris, 1971).Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 1} See, for example, van den Berghe, Pierre L., South Africa: a study in corfiict (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967).Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 2} Mphahlele, Ezekiel, The African Image (London, 1962), p. 25.Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 3} Ndebele, Njabulo, ‘Black Development’, in Black Viewpoint (Durban), Sprocas Black Community Programme, 1972, p. 26.Google Scholar

^{page 73 note 1} Mphahlele, op. cit. p. 36.

^{page 73 note 2} Ndebele, loc. cit. pp. 22–3.

^{page 73 note 3} See Zahar, Renate, Kolonialismus end Entfremdung, Zur politischen Theorie Frants Fanons (Frankfurt, 1969),Google Scholar and Gendzier, Irene L., Frantz Fanon: a critical study (New York, 1974).Google Scholar

^{page 73 note 4} Black Review, 1972 (Durban), Sprocas Black Community Programme, pp. 40–2.

^{page 74 note 1} See ibid. for one of the first surveys of the cultural activities of self-aware black South Africans.

^{page 74 note 2} Gordinier, Nadine, ‘The Novel and the Nation in South Africa’, in Killam, G. D. (ed.), African Writers on African Writing (London, 1973), p. 52.Google Scholar

^{page 74 note 3} See also Buthelezi, Manas, ‘Der Platz des Missionars in suedafrikanischen Kirchen’, in Margull, H. I. (ed.), Keine Einbahnstrassen (Stuttgart, 1973), p. 73.Google Scholar

^{page 74 note 4} See, for example, Apartheid andthe Church (Johannesburg, 1972), Sprocas Black Community Programme.

^{page 75 note 1} See Grohs, Gerhard and Tibi, B. (eds.), Zur Soziologie der Dekolonisation in Afrika (Frankfurt, 1973).Google Scholar

^{page 75 note 2} Reprinted in Nyerere, Julius K., Freedom and Unity (Dar es Salaam, 1967), pp. 162–71.Google Scholar

^{page 75 note 3} Compare the critique by Koll, M. in Grohs (ed.), Theoretische Problems des Sozialismus in Afrika, p. 555.Google Scholar

^{page 75 note 4} Irele, Abiola, ‘The New Realism in African Literature’, Jahn Symposium, University of Mainz, 04 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 75 note 5} Nyerere, Julius K., Freedom and Socialism (Dar es Salaam, 1967).Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 1} Lemberg, op. cit. p. 4.

^{page 76 note 2} See, for example, Whiteley, William, Swahili: the rise of a national language (London, 1969);Google Scholar and Mkelle, M. Burhan, ‘Kiswahili in the Age of Full Commitment’, in East African Journal (Nairobi), 07 1972, p. 27.Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 3} See Ranger, Terence O., The Recovery of African Initiative in Tanzanian History (Dar s Salaam, 1969),Google Scholar and Kimambo, I. N. and Temu, A. J., A History of TanzaniaM (Nairobi, 1969).Google Scholar

^{page 77 note 1} See Nellis, John R., Theory of Ideology: the Tanzanian example (London and Nairobi, 1972), p. 192.Google Scholar

^{page 78 note 1} See Grohs, Gerhard, ‘Kulturelle Abhängigkeitsverhältnisse’, in Afrika Heute (Bonn), II, 1971, p. 29.Google Scholar