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Stirrings of Cuban Nationalism: The Student Generation of 1930*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Jaime Suchlicki
Jaime Suchlicki*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Miami
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Extract

Among Latin American nations, Cuba has had a prominent tradition of student involvement in politics. Although University of Havana students supported the independence movement from Spain, organized political activism began only in the 1920's. Influenced by the reformist ideas emanating from the Córdoba Reform Movement and from the Mexican and Russian Revolutions, the Cuban students began searching for answers to the island's many problems. Cuba's severe economic crisis of 1920 brought economic chaos and social misery to the island, accelerated the desire for change, and led to a questioning of the existing order of society. Close supervision of Cuban affairs by the United States, the failure of the old generation emerging out of the War for Independence to implement needed social, political, and economic reforms, and the desire for a modern and autonomous university all combined to produce a brewing student revolution.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Inter-American Studies , Volume 10 , Issue 3 , July 1968 , pp. 350 - 368
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 1968

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Footnotes

*

This essay is based on research conducted in 1966–1967 for a doctoral dissertation at Texas Christian University. The author is indebted to the many Cuban informants for their help and to Donald E. Worcester, Chairman, History Department, Texas Christian University, for valuable criticism.

References

1 The University of Havana continued to be the only institution of higher learning in Cuba until 1947 when the Catholic University, Santo Tomás de Villanueva, was founded. There were three Facultades at the University of Havana: Arts & Sciences; Medicine and Pharmacy; and Law. In 1926, there were 4,499 students attending the University. For a brief history of the University, see Luis Felipe LeRoy y Gálvez, La Universidad de la Habana: síntesis histórica (La Habana: Imprenta de la Universidad, 1960). See also Harriet Bunn and Ellen Gut, The Universities of Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti (Washington, D.C.; Pan American Union, 1946) and Severin K. Turosienski, Education in Cuba (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1943).

2 For Arce's lecture see “Solemne Acto en la Universidad Nacional,” Diario de la Marina, December 5, 1922, p. 1, and “Discurso del Doctor Arce en la Commemoration del 27 de noviembre,” ibid., Dec. 5, 1922 (evening edition), p. 1.

3 “Se suspenderá temporalmente el funcionamiento de la universidad,” ibid., Jan. 16, 1923, p. 1.

4 For the students' manifesto stating their demands see “Mientras no actúe la Comisión Mixta se considera imposible solucionar el actual problema de la universidad,” ibid., Feb. 9, 1923, p. 1.

5 Interview with Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 1967. Sánchez Arango, as all other persons interviewed, participated actively or was closely connected to the events narrated in this essay. Although these interviews provide the main substance of the data obtained, wherever possible documentary evidence has been used to supplement these accounts, i.e., newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, personal letters, tape recorded speeches, and manifestos. It is obvious that interviews vary in value because of the intense involvement of some and the faulty memories of others. All interviews have, therefore, been used cautiously.

6 For the reforms that were implemented into the University as a result of the actions of the students, see Rivas, Eduardo Suárez Un pueblo crucificado (Coral Gables: Service Offset Printers, 1964), pp. 6–16 Google Scholar. Suárez Rivas participated actively in these occurrences and was Vice President of the Student Federation. See also Luis Felipe LeRoy y Gálvez, “La Universidad de la Habana en su Etapa Republicana: Síntesis Histórica,” Revista de la Biblioteca Nacional José Mari (April-June, 1966), pp. 24-30, and Roa, Raúl, “La Revolución Universitaria de 1923,” Retorno a la Alborada (Las Villas: Universidad de Las Villas, 1964), I, 229–260 Google Scholar. Roa, a student activist in the 1930's and presently Castro's Minister of Foreign Relations, narrates in this book some of his university experiences.

7 In his early years, Mella used the name Nicanor McPartland with which his mother had registered him. Later on, however, he changed to his father's name. There is no good biography of Mella. There is only the very eulogistic biographical sketch by Dumpierre, Erasmo, Mella, esbozo biográfico (La Habana: Instituto de la Historia, 1965)Google Scholar. Most of the information concerning Mella was obtained by the author in interviews with Mella's widow, Mrs. Olivin Zaldivar in Miami, Florida, on April 3 and 4, 1967.

8 Julio Antonio Mella, “Los estudiantes y la Lucha Social,” Ensayos Revolucionarios (La Habana: Editôra Popular de Cuba y del Caribe, I960), p. 102.

9 During this period other “popular universities” sprang up throughout Latin America such as the “Universidad Popular Lastarria” in Chile and the “Universidad Libre” in Buenos Aires.

10 Some of Mella's writings are contained in a small book La Lucha revolucionaria contra el imperialismo (La Habana: Editôra Popular de Cuba y del Caribe, 1960). See also Julio A. Mella: documentos para su vida. Primer Congreso Nacional de Estudiantes (La Habana: Comisión Nacional Cubana de la UNESCO, 1964).

11 See Grobart, Fabio, “El movimiento obrero cubano de 1925 a 1933,” Cuba Socialista (August, 1966), pp. 88–120 Google Scholar. For a penetrating biographical sketch of Grobart, one of the Party's founders, see Kozolchyk, Boris, The Political Biographies of Three Castro Officials (Santa Monica: The Rand Corporation, 1966), pp. 1–20 Google Scholar.

12 An account of the founding of the party written by Blas Roca, its Secretary General from 1934 until 1965 can be found in Hoy, August 15, 1965 (Sunday Supplement), pp. 2-6.

13 Interview with Rolando Meruelo, Miami, Florida, March 29, 1967. Meruelo, a card-carrying member of the party, broke with the Communists in the 1940's, fleeing to the U.S. after Castro's revolutionary victory.

14 See Dumpierre, Mella, p. 40.

15 Interview with Mrs. Olivín Zaldívar, Miami, Florida, April 3-4, 1967.

16 Ibid.

17 The three political parties, Liberal, Conservative, and Popular, nominated Machado as their presidential candidate.

18 “Una refriega frente al Senado entre estudiantes contrarios al proyecto de prórroga de poderes y la policía,” Diario de ¡a Marina, June 9, 1927, pp. 1, 22.

19 See “Diecisiete Jóvenes detenidos en Pinar del Río por alterar el orden y protestar contra la prórroga,” ibid., June 21, 1927, p. 1, and “Muchos detenidos en Matanzas,” ibid.

20 Classes were resumed on June 30. See “Dentro de poco tiempo se reanudarán las clases en la universidad nacional,” ibid., June 24, 1927, p. 1, and “El Presidente de la República firmó ayer el decreto de apertura de la Universidad,” ibid., June 30, 1927, p. 1.

21 Interviews with Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 16, 1967.

22 Among those expelled were Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Eduardo Chibás, Antonio Guiteras, and others. See “Cuarenta y cinco estudiantes serán juzgados en consejo de disciplina por firmar escrito,” Diario de la Marina, April 14, 1928, p. 1, and Rubén de León, El Origen del Mal (Coral Gables: Service Ofifset Printers, 1964), pp. 291-292. Rubén de León was a prominent leader of the 1930 Directorio.

23 For the election results, see “Con orden completo se han efectuado las elecciones con el objeto de votar por la candidatura única,” Diario de la Marina, November 2, 1928, p. 1.

24 Interviews with Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 16, 1967. See also Rubén de León, El Origen del Mal, pp. 291-292, and Roa, Raúl, Viento Sur (La Habana: Editorial Selecta, 1953)Google Scholar. The members of the Directorio were selected by the students in periodical secret meetings. Usually, for every Directorio member appointed, an alternate was selected. When members of the first Directorio were unable to fulfill their assignment, their positions were automatically occupied by the alternates.

25 For an account of the events by one of the wounded students, see Pablo de la Tómente Brau, La última sonrisa de Trejo (La Habana: Delegación del Gobierno en el Capitolio Nacional, 1959). See also “Presentará la renuncia de su cargo de Rector universitario el Dr. Inclán,” Diario de la Marina, October 1, 1930, p. 1, and “Falleció a las 9:30 el joven estudiante Trejo,” ibid., October 2, 1930, p. 1.

26 See Castellanos, Gerardo, Panorama histórico: ensayo de cronología cubana (La Habana: Ucar García y Cía., 1934), p. 1901 Google Scholar.

27 “Distinguidas damas y varios estudiantes fueron enviados a la cárcel por hallarse en una casa del Vedado reunidos,” Diario de la Marina, January 4, 1931, p. 1.

28 “Eighty-five Professors Indicted,” The New York Times, February 15, 1931, p. 26.

29 See Ricardo Adán y Silva, “Las Conspiraciones en el ejército durante la tiranía,” Bohemia, No. 30 (August 26, 1934), pp. 50-52, 166-177.

30 Interview with Zoila Mullet, Miami, Florida, March 25, 1967.

31 Interviews with Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 16, 1967.

32 Interview with Rolando Meruelo, Miami, Florida, March 29, 1967.

33 Interview with Zoila Mullet, Miami, Florida, March 21, 1967.

34 For the ABC's program see Doctrina del ABC: Manifiesto-Programa de 1932 (La Habana: Editorial Cénit, 1942).

35 See Eddy Chibás, “Hacia donde va Cuba,” Bohemia, No. 30 (August 26, 1934). pp. 63-64.

36 See “Historia de la Revolución,” ibid., No. 30, (August 26, 1934), pp. 81-85.

37 This was not a law but rather the name applied to Machado's police method of killing prisoners “while trying to escape.”

38 A list of those assassinated by the government can be found in “Historia de la Revolución,” Bohemia, No. 30 (August 26, 1934), pp. 85-86, 140-149. See also “La muerte de los hermanos Valdés Dausá,” Carteles, No. 2 (January 14, 1934), p. 20.

39 For the events connected with the United States mediation, see Welles, Sumner, Relations Between the U.S. and Cuba (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, State Department, Latin American Series, No. 7, 1934)Google Scholar, and Thomson, Charles A., “The Cuban Revolution: Fall of Machado,” Foreign Policy Reports, XI, No. 21 (December 18, 1935), pp. 250–260 Google Scholar. A good summary of U.S.Cuban relations during this period can be found in Wood, Bryce, The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1967)Google Scholar.

40 “Havana Students Scorn Mediation,” The New York Times, July 16, 1933, II, p. 2. Also see Chibás, “Hacia donde va Cuba,” p. 64.

41 Interview with Juan J. Remos, Miami, Florida, April 30, 1965.

42 See Russell B. Porter, “Students Guiding Destinies of Cuba,” The New York Times, September 15, 1933, p. 6. Porter wrote several other articles favorable to the students. See “Student Idealism Faces Test in Cuba,” ibid., September 13, 1933, p. 15, and “Cuba Libre: The New Challenge,” ibid., September 17 1933, VI, pp. 2, 16.

43 Roa, Raúl, Quince años después (La Habana: Selecta, 1950) pp. 408–561, 579Google Scholar, quoted in Kozolchyk, Political Biographies, pp. 29, 32-34.

44 See Kozolchyk, Political Biographies, pp. 32-34.

45 For the students' program see “Directorio Estudiantil Universitario al Pueblo de Cuba,” Diario de la Marina, August 24, 1933, p. 1.

46 For an account of the military revolt by a participating army officer see Horacio Ferrer, “El General Herrera, al traicionar al ejército precipitó la caída de Machado,” ibid., August 23, 1933, p. 4. See also Schweyer, Alberto Lamar, Como Cayó el Presidente Machado (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1934)Google Scholar. Schweyer worked as newspaper censor for the Machado regime.

47 See “El ABC ante la crisis cubana,” Diario de la Marina, September 11, 1933, p. 1.

48 On August 19 one of Machado's most hated henchmen, Chief of Police Antonio Ainciart, shot himself to avoid capture. His naked body was hauled to the university and hung from an electric light pole. See “Antonio B. Ainciart se suicidó anoche, al verse acorralado,” ibid., August 20, 1933, p. 1. The Directorio denied any responsibility for these events. See “Aclaración del Directorio de la Universidad,” ibid., August 21, 1933, p. 1.

49 “Declaraciones del Directorio Estudiantil Universitario,” ibid., August 29, 1933, p. 1.

50 For the students' demands, see their manifesto “Directorio Estudiantil Universitario al Pueblo de Cuba,” ibid., August 24, 1933, p. 1.

51 Statement to the Foreign Policy Association by Carlos Prío Socarrás quoted in Thomson, Charles A., “The Cuban Revolution: Reform and Reaction,” Foreign Policy Reports, XI, No. 21 (December 18, 1935), 262 Google Scholar.

52 “Destituido el actual gobierno por la Agrupación Revolucionaria de Cuba,” Diario de la Marina, September 4, 1933, p. 1. Céspedes did not offer his resignation to the Pentarchy. He finally resigned in January, 1934, just before Mendieta took the oath of office as Provisional President.

53 For the events connected with the rise and fall of the Pentarchy see José M. Irisarri, “Cómo nació y cómo murió la Comisión Ejecutiva,” in Bohemia, No. 30 (August 26, 1934), pp. 7, 127-130.

54 Ibid., p. 129.

55 “Fué Designado Presidente de la República el Dr. Grau San Martín,” Diario de la Marina, September 10, 1933, p. 1.

56 Russell B. Porter, “Students Guiding Destinies of Cuba,” The New York Times, September 15, 1933, p. 6.

57 “Convocada la Convención Nacional Constituyente que deberá iniciar sus sesiones el 20 de mayo de 1934,” Diario de la Marina, September 19, 1933, p. 1.

58 Although negotiations began during Grau's regime, abrogation of the Amendment was not secured until 1934 during Mendieta's presidency.

59 The decree 2059, later reaffirmed by the Mendieta government, removed from the Secretary of Education all authority over university affairs and set aside 2 per cent of the national budget for its support. See Cuba, Gaceta de la Habana (October 9, 1933). Despite administrative autonomy, the university remained financially dependent on the government.

60 “Fué firmado el decreto que establece la jornada máxima de ocho horas en toda la República,” Diario de la Marina, September 20, 1933, p. 1.

61 A discussion of the social and labor legislation implemented during Grau's administration can be found in Commission on Cuban Affairs, Problems of the New Cuba (New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1935), pp. 201-217. See also Ramón Grau San Martín, “El nacionalismo Auténtico y sus leyes,” Bohemia, No. 30 (August 26, 1934), pp. 9, 125-126.

62 “Mr. Welles se entrevistó anoche con el Directorio Estudiantil Universitario,” Diario de la Marina, September 16, 1933, p. 1.

63 Chibás, “Hacia dónde va Cuba,” p. 64.

64 See Thomson, “The Cuban Revolution,” p. 265.

65 “Una sangrienta jornada fué la sublevación ocurrida ayer an la Habana,” Diario de la Marina, November 9, 1933, p. 1. Also see “Tras un intenso bombardeo se rindió ayer el castillo de Atares,” ibid., November 10, 1933, p. 1.

66 Interviews with Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 16, 1967.

67 Interviews with Leovigildo Ruiz, Miami, Florida, April 25, 1967, and Aureliano Sánchez Arango, Miami, Florida, April 15, 16, 1967.

68 “Del Directorio Estudiantil al Pueblo de Cuba,” Diario de la Marina, November 6, 1933, p. 2.

69 See Pablo de la Torriente Brau, “La nueva actitud universitaria,” Bohemia, No. 2 (January 14, 1934), pp. 32, 41. Torriente Brau, a brave anti-Machado Ala Izquierda leader who had embraced Marxism, died fighting for the Spanish Republic years later. The story of his life is told by his wife, Teresa Casuso, in her book Cuba and Castro (New York: Random House, 1961).

70 Ramón Grau San Martín, “The Cuban Terror,” The Nation, CXL (April 3, 1935), p. 381.

71 For the role of students in the Cuban revolution, see the author's article in Donald K. Emmerson (ed.), Students and Politics in Developing Nations (to be published by Praeger in 1968).