Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pftt2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-14T14:33:38.459Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Chengda Teachers School and Modern China's Frontier Politics: Ethnicity and Religion in the Implementation of Republican Law, 1925–49

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2022

Bin Chen Open the ORCID record for Bin Chen [Opens in a new window]
Bin Chen*
Affiliation:
School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
*
Email: chenbin@cuhk.edu.cn
Get access

Abstract

The military victories of the Northern Expedition (1926–28) ended nearly two decades of political fragmentation and ushered in a new era of centralized government in China. A key concern of the Nationalist government, based in Nanjing, was bringing the haphazard array of private schools that had emerged since the republic's founding in 1911 in line with the Nationalists’ political agenda. The Nationalist leadership also hoped to use their educational reforms to bring the frontier regions, many of which were only tenuously allied with Nanjing, more formally under their control. Thus, the new regime set out to achieve the twin goals of regulating private schools and cultivating ties among the frontier region's population. These two goals became entangled in an unexpected manner at the private Muslim Chengda Teachers School. Although the Nationalists banned private teachers schools in 1933, they deliberately exempted Chengda from such regulations to further their frontier agenda. Later, when the central government's frontier political calculations changed, the Nationalists rescinded such protection and forced Chengda to abide by the original regulations.

Keywords

Chengdafrontier politicsMa FuxiangMa HongkuiNationalist governmentteachers school
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 81 , Issue 2 , May 2022 , pp. 323 - 340
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

An, Qinglan. 1939. “Huiyi zhong de muxiao: Xibei gongxue” 回憶中的母校—西北公學 [The alma mater in memories: Xibei Academy]. Huimin Yanlun Banyuekan, no. 2:33–35.Google Scholar
An, Zuozhang, and Chunming, Liu, eds. 2008. Jinan tongshi xiandai juan 濟南通史⋅現代卷 [The history of Jinan: Modern period]. Jinan: Qilu shushe.Google Scholar
Asad, Talal. 1993. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Ashiwa, Yoshiko, and Wank, David L., eds. 2009. Making Religion, Making the State: The Politics of Religion in Modern China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Atwill, David G. 2018. Islamic Shangri-La: Inter-Asian Relations and Lhasa's Muslim Communities, 1600 to 1960. Oakland, Calif.: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Dor Benite, Zvi. 2004. “From ‘Literati’ to ‘Ulama’: The Origins of Chinese Muslim Nationalist Historiography.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 9 (4): 83–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bulag, Uradyn E. 2002. The Mongols at China's Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Cao, Sibin, ed. 1983. Guangzhou jin bainian jiaoyu shiliao 廣州近百年教育史料 [Historical records of Guangzhou education in the past 100 years]. Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Chen, Bin. 2019. “When the Rule of Law Met Rule by the Party: The Conflicts between Baptist Schools and the Local Guomindang in Republican Suzhou.” Journal of Modern Chinese History 13 (2): 274–95.Google Scholar
Chen, Yunqian. 2009. Chongbai yu jiyi—Sun Zhongshan fuhao de jiangou yu chuanbo 崇拜與記憶—孫中山符號的建構與傳播 [Worship and memory: The construction and spread of the symbol of Sun Yat-Sen]. Nanjing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Cheng, . 1937. “Chengda shifan jiufen zhi toushi” 成達師範糾紛之透視 [Perspective of disputes in Chengda Teachers School]. Huijiao qingnian yuebao 1 (14–15): 7–10.Google Scholar
Chengda Monthly Press. 1934. “He weiyuanzhang Yuan shizhang ji ge dangzheng lingxiu li xiao canguan bing xunhua” 何委員長袁市長暨各黨政領袖蒞校參觀並訓話 [Chairman He, Mayor Yuan, and other party and government leaders visited Chengda and gave lectures]. Chengshi yuekan 1 (4): 8–12.Google Scholar
Chengda Teachers School. 1932. “Benxiao yange lue” 本校沿革略 [A short history of our school]. Chengda wenhui, no. 4:7–9.Google Scholar
Chengda Teachers School. 1941a. “Biye sheng yilanbiao: shifan bu diyiban 1932” 畢業生一覽表: 師範部第一班(1932) [A list of graduates of Chengda Teachers School: Class 1932 of the Teachers School Department]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Chengda Teachers School. 1941b. “Chengda cheng Jiaoyu bu” 成達呈教育部 十二月二十四日 [Chengda to Ministry of Education, December 24]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12832.Google Scholar
Chengda Teachers School. 1942. “Chengda cheng Jiaoyu bu” 成達呈教育部 三月四日 [Chengda to Ministry of Education, March 4]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12832.Google Scholar
Chiang Kai-shek. 1939. “Jiang zongcai kaimu dianli xunci” 蔣總裁開幕典禮訓詞 [President Chiang's opening ceremony speech]. Zhongguo Huijiao jiuguo xiehui diyijie quanti huiyuan daibiao dahui tekan, August, 5–6.Google Scholar
Cieciura, Wlodzimierz. 2016. “Ethnicity or Religion? Republican-Era Chinese Debates on Islam and Muslims.” In Islamic Thought in China: Sino-Muslim Intellectual Evolution from the 17th to the 21st Century, edited by Lipman, Jonathan, 107–46. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cong, Xiaoping. 2007. Teachers Schools and the Making of the Modern Chinese Nation-State, 1897–1937. Vancouver: UBC Press.Google Scholar
Curran, Thomas D. 2005. Educational Reform in Republican China: The Failure of Educators to Create a Modern Nation. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press.Google Scholar
Dagongbao. 1937a. “Beiping Chengda shifan liu Ai xuesheng lufei zhongyang jiang buzhu” 北平成達師範留埃學生旅費 中央將補助 [The central government will subsidize the travel expenses of Chengda students studying in Egypt]. May 3.Google Scholar
Dagongbao. 1937b. “Jiang weiyuanzhang juanzhu Chengda shifan xuexiao” 蔣委員長捐助成達師範學校 [Chiang Kai-shek made donations to Chengda Teachers School]. March 13.Google Scholar
Dagongbao. 1948. “Fu Zuoyi yao yan Huimin lingxiu” 傅作義邀宴回民領袖 [Fu Zuoyi invited the leaders of the Hui people to dinner]. June 4.Google Scholar
Ding, Mingjun. 2000. Ma Fuxiang zhuan 馬福祥傳 [The biography of Ma Fuxiang]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Duan, Jinsheng. 2012. Nanjing Guominzhengfu de bianzheng 南京國民政府的邊政 [The borderland policies of the Nanjing Nationalist government]. Beijing: Minzu chubanshe.Google Scholar
Eastman, Lloyd E. 1986. “Nationalist China during the Nanking Decade 1927–1937.” In The Cambridge History of China: vol. 13, Republican China, 1912–1949, edited by Fairbank, John King and Feuerwerker, Albert, 116–67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esenbel, Selçuk. 2017. “Fukushima Yasumasa and Utsunomiya Tarō on the Edge of the Silk Road: Pan-Asian Visions and the Network of Military Intlligence from the Ottoman and Qajar Realms into Central Asia.” In Japan on the Silk Road: Encounters and Perspectives of Politics and Culture in Eurasia, edited by Esenbel, Selçuk, 87–117. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Executive Yuan. 1941. “Xingzheng yuan shencha hui” 行政院審查會 [Executive Yuan meeting]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru C. 1991. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Goossaert, Vincent, and Palmer, David A.. 2011. The Religious Question in Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gu, Jiegang. 1939. “Zhonghua minzu shi yige” 中華民族是一個 [The Chinese nation is one]. Yishi Bao, no. 9 (February): 1.Google Scholar
Gu, Shusen. 1940. “Gu sizhang zhi Tang Kesan” 顧司長至唐柯三 [Director Gu to Tang Kesan]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Hammond, Kelly A. 2020. China's Muslims and Japan's Empire: Centering Islam in World War II. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrell, Stevan. 1999. “The Role of the Periphery in Chinese Nationalism.” In Imagining China: Regional Division and National Unity, edited by Huang, Shu-min and Hsu, Cheng-kuang, 133–60. Taipei: Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Iriye, Akira. 1986. “Japanese Aggression and China's International Position 1931–1949.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 13, Republican China, 1912–1949, edited by Fairbank, John King and Feuerwerker, Albert, 492–546. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Israel, John. 1998. Lianda: A Chinese University in War and Revolution. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Jessup, J. Brooks. 2010. “The Householder Elite: Buddhist Activism in Shanghai, 1920-1956.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Leibold, James. 2007. Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism: How the Qing Frontier and Its Indigenes Became Chinese. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Huaying. 2006. “Musilin jiaoyujia Ma Songting daahong qirenqishi” 穆斯林教育家馬松亭大阿訇其人其事 [Muslim educator Ma Songting]. In Chengdedacai “Jinian Chengdashifan chuangjian bashizhounian xueshuyantaohui” Lunwen Huibian 成德達才: “紀念成達師範創建八十週年”學術研討會論文彙編 [To become moral and talented: The compilation of papers of “The Conference in Honor of the Eightieth Anniversary of the Founding of Chengda Teachers Academy”], edited by Chinese Islamic Association, 81–90. Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe.Google Scholar
Li, Jianbiao. 2017. Da Pusheng pingzhuan 達浦生評傳 [Da Pusheng biography]. Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe.Google Scholar
Liang, Qichao. 1989. Li Hongzhang zhuan 李鴻章傳 [The biography of Li Hongzhang]. Minguo congshu diyibian 民國叢書第一編 [The books of Republican China series 1] 85. Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe.Google Scholar
Lin, Hsiao-ting. 2011. Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 1997. Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Dongsheng. 1993a. “Chengda shifan xuexiao xiaoshi shu yao (xu)” 成達師範學校校史述要(續) [A history of Chengda Teachers School II]. Huizu yanjiu, no. 3:71–78.Google Scholar
Liu, Dongsheng. 1993b. “Chengda shifan xuexiao xiaoshi shu yao” 成達師範學校校史述要 [A concise history of the Chengda Teachers School]. Huizu yanjiu, no. 2:61–75.Google Scholar
Ma, Bozhong. 2006a. “Fa Jingxuan yu Chengda shifan” 法鏡軒與成達師範 [Fa Jingxuan and Chengda]. In Chengdedacai, edited by Chinese Islamic Association, 203–14. Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe.Google Scholar
Ma, Bozhong. 2006b. “Huizu mingren Mu Huating” 回族名人穆華亭 [A famous Hui Mu Huating]. In Chengdedacai, edited by Chinese Islamic Association, 159–68. Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe.Google Scholar
Ma, Fuxiang. 1932. “Ma dongshizhang xunci” 馬董事長訓詞 [Motto of Chairman Ma]. Yuehua 4 (19–21): 5.Google Scholar
Ma, Hongkui. 1932. “Ma fu dongshizhang Shaoyun xiansheng daibiao Bai Jianmin chuzhang xunci” 馬副董事長少雲先生代表白建民處長訓詞 [Speech of Vice-Chairman Ma Hongkui, on behalf of Director Bai Jianmin]. Yuehua 4 (19–21): 7–8.Google Scholar
Ma, Hongkui. 1937. “Ma Hongkui qishi” 馬鴻逵啟事 [Ma Hongkui's announcement]. Dagongbao, March 24.Google Scholar
Ma, Songting. 1936. “Zhongguo Huijiao yu Chengda shifan xuexiao” 中國回教與成達師範學校 [Chinese Islam and the Chengda Teachers School]. Yugong 5 (11): 1–14.Google Scholar
Ma, Songting. 1941. “Ma Shouling huifu Jiaoyu bu” 馬壽齡回覆教育部 [Ma Songting to the Ministry of Education]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Ma, Wenlie. 1939. “Cheng Xingzheng yuan Jiaoyu bu buzhang” 呈行政院教育部部長 [To the Minister of Education, Executive Yuan]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 13055.Google Scholar
Ma, Yugui. 1934a. “Benxiao biyesheng Gansu Linxia xiaoxue fuwu baogao shu” 本校畢業生甘肅臨夏小學服務報告書 [Service report of our graduates from Gansu Linxia Primary School]. Chengshi yuekan 1 (7): 16–19.Google Scholar
Ma, Yugui. 1934b. “Huimin jiaoyu zhi sheshi yu xibei wenti 回民教育之設施與西北問題 [The facilities of Muslim education and the northwestern issue].” Chengshi yuekan 1 (7): 14–16.Google Scholar
Mao, Yufeng. 2011. “Muslim Educational Reform in 20th-Century China: The Case of the Chengda Teachers Academy.” Extrême-Orient Extrême-Occident, no. 33:143–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsumoto, Masumi. 2002. “Sino-Muslims’ Identity and Thoughts during the Anti-Japanese War: Impact of the Middle East on Islamic Revival and Reform in China.” Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies 18 (2): 39–54.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, Masumi. 2016. “Secularisation and Modernisation of Islam in China: Educational Reform, Japanese Occupation and the Disappearance of Persian Learning.” In Islamic Thought in China: Sino-Muslim Intellectual Evolution from the 17th to the 21st Century, edited by Lipman, Jonathan, 171–232. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minbao. 1933. “Sili shifan xuexiao yilu gaibian zhixiao huo zhongxue” 私立師範學校一律改辨職校或中學 [All private teachers schools should be changed to vocational schools or middle schools]. April 19.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1932. “Shifan xuexiao fa” 師範學校法 [Teachers schools law]. Guominzhengfu gongbao, no. 1007:4–5.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1933. “Shifan xuexiao guicheng” 師範學校規程 [Teachers schools regulations]. Jiaoyubu gongbao 5 (15–16): 19–41.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1940. “Tang Kesan jingqi” 唐柯三敬啟 [To Tang Kesan]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1941. “Sili Chengda shifan fanying dangnian de caizheng buzhu hai wei rushi daowei” 私立成達師範反應當年的財政補助還未如實到位 [The private Chengda Teachers School reported that the financial subsidies for this year has not yet in place]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12831.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1943a. Bianjiang jiaoyu gaikuang 邊疆教育概況 [Frontier education overview].Google Scholar
Ministry of Education. 1943b. “Chengda shifan xuexiao gejie biyesheng qingce” 成達師範學校各界畢業生清冊 [A list of all graduates of Chengda Teachers School]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12837.Google Scholar
Mongolian-Tibetan Commission. 1934. “Mengzang weiyuanhui meiyue buzhu Mengzanghui jiaoyu wenhua jingfei zhi tongji” 蒙藏委員會每月補助蒙藏回教育文化經費之統計 [A table of the monthly stipend provided by the Mongolian-Tibetan Commission for the educational affairs of Mongolia, Tibet, and Hui]. Zhongguo Guomindang zhidaoxia zhengzhi chengji tongji, no. 10:37–39.Google Scholar
National Chengda Teachers School. 1942. “Guoli Chengda shifan xuexiao cheng Jiaoyu bu” 國立成達師範學校呈教育部 八月十一日 [The National Chengda Teachers School to Ministry of Education, August 11]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12832.Google Scholar
Nedostup, Rebecca. 2009. Superstitious Regimes: Religion and the Politics of Chinese Modernity. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center.Google Scholar
Press Bureau of the Executive Yuan. 1947. Bianjiang jiaoyu 邊疆教育 [Frontier education].Google Scholar
Shanghai Education Bureau. 1934. “Wei gexiao ying zi Minguo ershier niandu qi tingzhi zhaoshou shifan xinsheng ji chabansheng jiusheng ban zhi biye weizhi yang ji zunzhao you” 爲各校應自民國二十二年度起停止招收師範新生及插班生舊生辦至畢業爲止仰即遵照由 [(Private) schools should stop enrolling students to their teachers departments beginning of 1933 and current students may continue until graduation]. Shanghai shi Jiaoyuju jiaoyu zhoubao, no. 226:6–7.Google Scholar
Shi, Lun. 2006. Xibei Majia junfa shi 西北馬家軍閥史 [The history of Ma warlords in northwest China]. Lanzhou: Gansu renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. 1934. “Xiaoshi shuyao” 校史述要 [School history]. In Beiping Xibei gongxue yilan北平西北公學一覽 [An overview of the Xibei Middle School], by Xibei gongxue. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. 1940. “Da Xibei gongxue quanti tongxue” 答西北公學全體同學 [An answer to all the students of the Xibei Academy]. Huijiao luntan 4 (5–6): 12–15.Google Scholar
Tuttle, Gray. 2005. Tibetan Buddhists in the Making of Modern China. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
van der Veer, Peter. 2001. Imperial Encounters: Religion and Modernity in India and Britain. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wan, Li. 1934. “Beiping Chengda shifan gaikuang” 北平成達師範概況 [An overview of Beijing Chengda Teachers School]. Rendao yuekan 1 (6–7): 23.Google Scholar
Wang, Ke. 2009. “Riben qinhua zhanzheng yu ‘Huijiao gongzuo’” 日本侵華戰爭與"回教工作" [The anti-Japanese war and Japanese work on the Hui-Muslims]. Lishi yanjiu, no. 5:87–105.Google Scholar
Wang, Zhengru. 2012. Ma Fuxiang 馬福祥 [Ma Fuxiang]. Beijing: Renmin ribao chuban she.Google Scholar
Wanxian Shizhi 萬縣市志 [Wanxian city gazetteer]. 2001. Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe.Google Scholar
Wilbur, C. Martin. 1983. “The Nationalist Revolution: From Canton to Nanking, 1923–28.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12, Republican China, 1912–1949, edited by Fairbank, John King, 527–720. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Xibei, Gongxue. 1934a. “Beiping shi zhengfu meiyue buzhu wubai yuan piwen” 北平市政府每月補助五百元批文 [Beiping city government approved five hundred yuan a month for the Xibei Middle School]. In Beiping Xibei gongxue yilan.Google Scholar
Xibei, Gongxue. 1934b. “Beiping Xibei gongxue xianxing xue ze” 北平西北公學現行學則 [Current rules of Beijing Xibei Academy]. In Beiping Xibei gongxue yilan.Google Scholar
Xibei, Gongxue. 1934c. “Buzhu jingfei pi han” 補助經費批函 [Funding approval letters]. In Beiping Xibei gongxue yilan.Google Scholar
Xie, Songtao. 1943. “Chengda xiaozhang Xie Songtao dian Jiaoyu bu buzhang Chen” 成達校長謝松濤電教育部部長陳 [Chengda president Xie Songtao to Minister Chen of the Ministry of Education]. Nanjing. Second Historical Archives of China, 5: 12837.Google Scholar
Xiong, Zongren. 2016. He Yingqin quanzhuan 何應欽全傳 [The complete biography of He Yingqin]. Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe.Google Scholar
Xu, Youchun, ed. 1991. Minguo renwu dacidian 民國人物大辭典 [Dictionary of figures of the Republic of China]. Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Xue, Wenbo. 1999. Xueling chongze 雪嶺重澤 [Snow mountains]. Vol. 1. Lanzhou: Xinda jiaoyinchang.Google Scholar
Yuan, Ding'an. 1935. Youtaijiao gailun 猶太教概論 [Introduction to Judaism]. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan.Google Scholar
Yuehua Press. 1931. “Chengda shifan xuexiao huanying Ma fu dongshizhang Shaoyun dahui jishi” 成達師範學校歡迎馬副董事長少雲大會紀事 [Chengda Teachers School welcomes Vice-Chair Ma Hongkui]. Yuehua 3 (35): 13–15.Google Scholar
Yuehua Press. 1932a. “Beiping Chengda shifan xuexiao zong zhang” 北平成達師範學校總章 [The charter of Beijing Chengda Teachers School]. Yuehua 4 (19–21): 67–69.Google Scholar
Yuehua Press. 1932b. “Chengda Shifan xuexiao diyiban biye dianli zhi gaikuang” 成達師範學校第一班畢業典禮之概況 [Overview of the first graduation ceremony of Chengda Teachers School]. Yuehua 4 (19–21): 70.Google Scholar
Zhongyang Ribao. 1929. “Xibei jun panluan yu Feng Yuxiang” 西北軍叛亂與馮玉祥 [The rebellion of the Northwest Army and Feng Yuxiang]. October 24.Google Scholar
Zhou, Zhongren. 2006. “Jinan Chengda shifan” 濟南成達師範 [The Chengda Teachers School in Jinan]. In Chengdedacai, edited by Chinese Islamic Association, 2–6. Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhu, Ci'en. 2008. “Mengzang weiyuanhui yu Minguo shiqi de bianjiang jiaoyu” 蒙藏委員會與民國時期的邊疆教育 [Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission and education in border areas during the period of the Republic of China]. Minzu jiaoyu yanjiu 19 (5): 84–88.Google Scholar