1 There are different schools of thoughts on the concept of peace: the Pax Romania concept views peace as the absence of war (criticized for its neglect of issues which cause violence to flourish); the Graeco-Arabic-Hebraic and the Eirene-sala'am-shalom notions embody ideas of justice, equity and freedom respectively; while the Hindu-Jainist-Buddhist traditions of Shanti emphasize intra-personal peace and harmony with nature. See D Oyesola “Environmental degradation and peace studies” in IO Albert (ed) Perspectives on Peace and Conflict in Africa (2005, Peace and Conflict Studies Programme) 253. On the need for structural changes in addressing peace and security challenges facing Nigeria, see EO Alemika “Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria” in DA Guobadia and AO Adekunle (eds) Ethnicity and National Integration in Nigeria: Recurring Theme (2004, Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies) 87.

2 Identity refers to the way individuals and groups identify themselves or are identified by others. See generally A Gutman Identity in Democracy (2003, Princeton University Press) at 1–37. On the literature linking identity with politics and violent conflict, see generally Hagg, G and Kagwanja, P “Identity and peace: Reconfiguring conflict resolution in Africa” (2007) 7/2African Journal on Conflict Resolution 9Google Scholar. See also Gutman, ibid. In relation to scholarship focusing on identity and violent conflict in Nigeria, see Nwanegbo, J, Odigbo, J and Ochanja, NC “Citizenship, indigeneship and settlership crisis in Nigeria: Understanding the dynamics of Wukari crisis” (2014) 4/1Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development 1Google Scholar at 8–14. See also O Obafemi and H Galadima (eds) Complex Insurgencies in Nigeria: Proceedings of the NIPSS 2012 Eminent Persons & Experts Group Meeting (2013, National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies).

3 Gutman, id at 3.

4 CH Enloe Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (1973, Little, Brown and Company) at 3.

5 Galtung, J “Institutionalized conflict resolution: A theoretical paradigm” (1965) 2/4Journal of Peace Research 348CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 349.

6 Ibid.

7 Gutman Identity in Democracy, above at note 2 at 7.

8 C Igbokwe “Nigeria 2015: Servicing the instruments of war” (6 August 2014) Aljazeera, available at: <http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/08/nigeria-2015-servicing-instrument-2014867485504717.html> (last accessed 4 September 2014).

9 AU Adamu “Insurgency in Nigeria: The northern Nigerian experience” in Obafemi and Galadima (eds) Complex Insurgencies, above at note 2, 77. See also Okpaga, A, Chijioke, US and Innocent, EO “Activities of Boko Haram and the insecurity question in Nigeria” (2012) 1/9Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review 77Google Scholar.

10 Ciboh, R “Newspaper inquest into Tiv-Jukun Conflict 2001: An analysis of ethnic inequality and domination in contemporary Nigeria” (2014) 21 New Media and Mass Communication 40Google Scholar at 42–43.

11 Mbah, P and Nwangwu, C “Sub-ethnic identity and conflict in Nigeria: The policy option for the resolution of the conflict between Ezza and Ezillo in Ebonyi State” (2014) 5/2Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 681Google Scholar.

12 Akanji, OO “Group rights and conflicts in Africa: A critical reflection on Ife-Modakeke, Nigeria” (2009) 16 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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14 Christopher, OO “Communal conflict management, information communication and utilization in Ondo State, Nigeria: A case study of Ijaw / Ilaje Crises” (2008) 5/1–2Journal of Library and Information Science 141Google Scholar.

15 Anthony, AO “An evaluation of the causes and efforts adopted in managing the ethnic conflicts, identity and settlement pattern among the different ethnic groups in Warri, Delta State, Nigeria” (2014) 3/4International Journal of Science and Research 344Google Scholar at 346.

16 Akpan, NS “Governance and communal conflicts in a post-democratic Nigeria: A case of the oil-producing Niger Delta Region” (2010) 2/3Journal of African Studies and Development 65Google Scholar.

17 Igbokwe “Nigeria 2015”, above at note 8.

18 Fasan, R “Will there be peace in our time?” (28 September 2011) Vanguard (Nigeria) at 36Google Scholar.

19 W Soyinka The Open Sore of a Continent: A Personal Narrative of the Nigerian Crisis (1996, Oxford University Press) at 18.

20 K Maier This House Has Fallen: Crisis in Nigeria (2000, Penguin) at xix. See also J Campbell Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink (2011, Rowman and Littlefield).

21 E Onwudiwe “A pan-African agenda for the national conference”, available at: <http://www.laits.utexas.edu/africa/ads/371.html> (last accessed 16 December 2015).

22 Amaraegbu, DA “Violence, terrorism and security threat in Nigeria's Niger Delta: An old problem taking a new dimension” (2011) 5/4African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 208Google Scholar at 209.

23 Ibid.

24 Osareti, I and Akov, E “Ethno-religious conflict and peace building in Nigeria: The case of Jos, Plateau State” (2013) 2/1Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 349Google Scholar at 355. See also News Agency of Nigeria “Jonathan, Hausa / Fulani leaders meet over Jos crises” (12 August 2012) Vanguard (Nigeria), available at: <http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/08/jonathan-hausa-fulani-leaders-meet-over-jos-crises/> (last accessed 11 December 2015).

25 O Adetayo “Presidency considers Boko-Haram terms to cease fire and go political” (19 August 2012) Punch (Nigeria), available at: <http://newsrescue.com/nigeria-presidency-considers-boko-haram-terms-cease-fire-political/> (last accessed 11 December 2015).

26 “FG releases delegates lists for national confab” (6 March 2014) OGTV (Nigeria), available at: <http://www.ogtv.com.ng/fg-releases-delegates-lists-for-national-confab/> (last accessed 13 December 2015).

27 E Ekhator “National Conference, a waste of public funds - Punch Poll” (17 April 2014) Punch (Nigeria), available at: <http://www.naijacenter.com/news/national-conference-waste-public-funds-punch-poll/> (last accessed 14 December 2015).

28 EB Mijah “Democracy, internal security and the challenges of policing in Nigeria” (paper presented at international conference, Evangelische Akademie, Germany, 15–17 June 2007) at 10.

29 The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (cap C23 LFN 2004), sec 15(1) describes the motto of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as “Unity and faith, peace and progress”.

30 Id, chap 7 generally describes the power of the courts.

31 MT Ladan “Diagnostic review of insurgency in Nigeria: The legal dimension” (paper presented at the eminent and expert working group meeting on national counter insurgency strategy, NIPSS, Kuru, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria, 28–31 August 2012) at 28–31.

32 B Ogunyemi “Our sense of security” (30 September 2011) ThisDay (Nigeria) at 34–35.

33 For general highlights on conflicts in Nigeria, see SG Egwu Ethnic and Religious Violence in Nigeria (2011, St Stephen Inc Book House). See also T Falola and MM Heaton A History of Nigeria (2008, Cambridge University Press).

34 U Emelonye and U Chukwumaeze “Constitutional development and legal frameworks in Nigeria” in U Emelonye and RM Buergenthal (eds) Nigeria: Peacebuilding Through Integration and Citizenship (2011, International Development Law Organization) 106 at 121.

35 J Rawls Political Liberalism (2005, Columbia University Press) at 227.

36 F Michelman “Constitutional essentials” (paper delivered at conference on the 20th anniversary of Israel's human rights revolution, at the Knesset, Jerusalem, Israel, 19 December 2011) at 6.

37 Elster, J “Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe” (1991) 58/2The University of Chicago Law Review 447CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 465.

38 Rawls Political Liberalism, above at note 35 at 197.

39 J Raz The Morality of Freedom (1988, Oxford University Press) at 258.

40 B Møller “Peace as a global public good” (Development Research Series, Research Center on Development and International Relations, working paper no 127, 2004) at 6.

41 Raz The Morality of Freedom, above at note 39 at 258.

42 Raz, J “Rights and politics” (1995) 71/1Indiana Law Journal 27Google Scholar at 42.

43 Id at 42–43.

44 M Mamdani “Peace, justice and ethnic conflict” (3 March 2014) CODESRIA Newsletter (Senegal), available at: <http://www.codesria.org/spip.php?article1962> (last accessed 11 December 2015).

45 Ibid.

46 Raz “Rights and politics”, above at note 42 at 44.

47 Chimango, LJ “Tradition and traditional courts of Malawi” (1977) 10 Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 40Google Scholar.

48 “Nigeria” LawNigeria.com, available at: <http://lawnigeria.com/Nigeria/Nigeria.html> (last accessed 12 September 2014).

49 TK Adekunle “Nigerian indigenous courts and their dispute resolving mechanisms in global perspective”, available at: <http://www.aija.org.au/NAJ%202010/Papers/Adekunle%20TK.pdf> (last accessed 5 September 2014) at 1.

50 [1994] LPELR-SC 232.

51 Cited in K Aina “Keynote speech” (paper delivered at the NIALS intensive course on alternative dispute resolution, Nigeria, 13 August 2012) at 4–5.

52 Id at 5.

53 Id at 6.

54 Adekunle “Nigerian indigenous courts”, above at note 49 at 5.

55 “Nigeria”, above at note 48.

56 Oba, AA “Neither fish nor fowl: Area courts in the Ilorin emirate in northern Nigeria” (2009) Journal of Legal Pluralism 69Google Scholar at 70.

57 Nigeria's 1999 Constitution, sec 19.

58 An example of such laws is Customary Law (cap 41) Laws of Oyo State, 2002.

59 TK Adekunle “Customary courts in Nigeria: The neglected cornerstone in the dispensation of justice” in MAD Bello, NM Jamo and AM Madaki (eds) Administration of Justice in the Customary Courts of Nigeria: Problems and Prospects (2009, Private Law Department of Ahmadu Bello University) at 345–46, cited in Adekunle “Nigerian indigenous courts”, above at note 49 at 5.

60 Adekunle “Nigerian indigenous courts”, id at 5–6.

61 IO Albert, T Awe, G Herault and W Omitogun Informal Channels for Conflict Resolution in Ibadan, Nigeria (1995, IFRA) at 9–10.

62 NA Fadipe Sociology of the Yoruba (1970, Ibadan University Press) at 106.

63 [1990] SC 26/1988 at 73. See also D Nareboh Customary Courts: Their Relevance Today (1993, Jodah) at 31.

64 [1991] 7 NWLR (pt 204) 391 at 417.

65 Adekunle “Nigerian indigenous courts”, above at note 49 at 19.

66 Funk, N “Localizing peace: An agenda for sustainable peacebuilding” (2010) 17/1Peace and Conflicts Studies 101Google Scholar at 116. See also CRM Dlamini “The role of customary law in meeting social needs” in TW Bennet, DJ Devine, DB Hutchison, I Leeman, CM Murray and DZ Smit (eds) African Customary Law (1991, Juta & Co Ltd) 71 at 72 and 84.

67 KB Motshabi and SG Volks “Towards democratic chieftaincy principles and procedures” in Bennet et al (eds), id 104 at 108. See also K Wiredu Philosophy and an African Culture (1980, Cambridge University Press) at 2–5.

68 EE Osaghae “Applying traditional methods to modern conflict: Possibilities and limits” in IW Zartman (ed) Traditional Cures for Modern Conflicts: African Conflict Medicine (2000, Lynne Rienner Publishers) 201 at 214–15.

69 TW Bennet Human Rights and African Customary Law (1995, Juta) at 85. See also Osaghae, ibid.

70 Osaghae, ibid.

71 T Bennet “‘Official’ vs ‘living’ customary law: Dilemmas of description and recognition” in A Claassens and B Cousins (eds) Land, Power and Custom: Controversies Generated by South Africa's Communal Land Rights (2009, UCT Press) 138 at 144–45. See also Dlamini “The role of customary law”, above at note 66 at 72.

72 Raz “Rights and politics”, above at note 42 at 42.

73 J King Judging Social Rights (2012, Cambridge University Press) at 94.

74 Id at 85–93.

75 Chukwuemerie, A “Necessity as the mother of trial blazing: Applying alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to political party disputes in Africa” (2009) 2/4Journal of Politics and Law 121CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 132.

76 Chap 7 generally describes the power of courts.

77 Cronin, C “On the possibility of a democratic constitutional founding: Habermas and Michelman in dialogue” (2006) 19 Ratio Juris 343CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 356.

78 J Habermas “Struggles for recognition in the democratic constitutional state” in A Gutman (ed) Multiculturalism (1994, Princeton University Press) 107 at 135.

79 CBN Ogbogbo “Nigeria-Niger Delta relations 1960–1995” in O Akinwumi, OO Okpeh Jr and JD Gwamna (eds) Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria in the 19th and 20th Centuries (2006, Aboki publishers) 550 at 553.

80 Oba, AA “Religious and customary laws in Nigeria” (2011) 25 Emory International Law Review 881Google Scholar at 882.

81 Akpan “Governance and communal conflicts”, above at note 16 at 65.

82 Adeyeri, O “Federalism and the challenges of nation-building in Nigeria” (2010) 2 International Journal of Research in Arts and Social Sciences 24Google Scholar.

83 Quoted in Maier This House Has Fallen, above at note 20 at xx.

84 Mijah “Democracy”, above at note 28 at 3–7.

85 Akpan “Governance and communal conflicts”, above at note 16 at 66–67.

86 Osareti and Akov “Ethno-religious conflict”, above at note 24.

87 J Krause “A deadly cycle: Ethno-religious conflict in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria” (working paper, Geneva, 11 June 2011) at 9.

88 JJF Forest Confronting the Terrorism of Boko Haram in Nigeria (2012, JSOU Print) at 12–15.

89 Ibid.

90 MA Sergie and T Johnson “Boko Haram”, available at: <http://www.cfr.org/africa/boko-haram/p25739> (last accessed 8 September 2012).

91 M McFaul Advancing Democracy Abroad: Why we should and How we can (2009, Rowman and Littlefield) at 14. See also Siegle, J, Weinstein, MM and Halperin, MH “Why democracies excel” (2004) 83/5Foreign Affairs 57CrossRefGoogle Scholar, arguing that democracies enhance political stability.

92 The 1995 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia, art 62(6).

93 AF Weldemariam “Conflict management in the Ethiopian multi-national federation” (unpublished dissertation, the European University Center for Peace Studies, Stadtschlaining, Austria, February 2009) at 65.

94 Id at 53.

95 A Kefale “Federalism: Some trends of ethnic conflicts and their management in Ethiopia” in AG Nhema (ed) The Quest for Peace in Africa: Transformations, Democracy, and Public Policy (2004, International Books) 51 at 60 and 67.

96 Weldemariam “Conflict management” above at note 93 at 67.

97 The 2004 Post-Transition Interim Constitution of the Republic of Burundi, art 269.

98 A Naniwe-Kaburahe “The institution of Bashingantahe in Burundi” in International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (ed) Traditional Justice and Reconciliation after Violent Conflict: Learning from African Experiences (2008, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance) 149 at 154 and 174.

99 Id at 153.

100 The Constitution of Kenya, 2010, art 67(2)(f).

101 The 2005 Constitution of the Kingdom of Swaziland, sec 235(4).

102 The 2001 Constitution of Somaliland, art 57.

103 Available at: <www.mint.gov.gh/dmdocuments/a_peace_architecture_for_ghana_.pdf> (last accessed 5 September 2014).

104 “President Mills inaugurates newly constituted National Peace Council” (11 November 2011) Ghana News Agency, available at: <http://www.ghananewsagency.org/politics/president-mills-inaugurates-national-peace-council-board-35465> (last accessed 5 September 2014).

105 Noagah, BK “The peace process in the Bakwu conflict in Ghana: Challenges and prospects” (2013) 12/2Conflict & Communication 1Google Scholar at 2.

106 Ibid.

107 Ibid.

108 Id at 7.

109 “National Peace Council deploys staff to regions” (13 November 2013) Ghana News Agency, available at: <http://www.ghananewsagency.org/social/national-peace-council-deploys-staff-to-regions--67151> (last accessed 5 September 2014).

110 PSC Protocol, art 3. See also Solemn Declaration on a Common African Defence and Security Policy, second extraordinary session, in Sirte, Great Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, on 28 February 2004.

111 Other pillars are the Continental Early Warning System, Peace Fund, the African Standby Force and African Common Defence Policy; see Vines, A “A decade of African peace and security architecture” (2013) 89/1International Affairs 89CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 90. See also Sarkin, J “The role of the United Nations, the African Union and Africa's sub-regional organizations in dealing with Africa's human rights problems: Connecting humanitarian intervention and the responsibility to protect” (2009) 53/1Journal of African Law 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 16.

112 PSC Protocol, art 11(2).

113 Ibid. See also Jegede, AO “The African Union peace and security architecture: Can the panel of the wise make a difference?” (2009) 9/2African Human Rights Law Journal 409Google Scholar at 417.

114 AU Assembly “Decision on the appointment of the members of the panel of the wise” Assembly/AU/Dec.152.152(VIII).

115 “The Chairperson of the AU Commission looks forward to working closely with the new AU panel of the wise” (AU press release, 9 July 2014).

116 Ibid.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid.

119 PSC Protocol, art 11(1).

120 “Modalities for the functioning of the panel of the wise”, adopted by the Peace and Security Council at its 100th meeting, 12 November 2007.

121 Id, sec II(1).

122 Id, sec II(3).

123 Id, sec II(4).

124 Id, sec IV(8).

125 Id, sec III(1)(a)–(h) and (2).

126 PSC Protocol, art 3. See also CADSP, above at note 110, introduction, para 3.

127 CADSP, para 11.

128 Id, para 14h.

129 Id, para 14j.

130 MT Maru “A decade later: Is the African Union still relevant?” (26 January 2014), available at: <http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/01/au-summit-too-little-too-late-201412164643828344.html> (last accessed 4 September 2014).

131 Jegede, AO “Beyond prospects: Strengthening the panel of the wise in the AU peace and security architecture” (2012) 1/1Journal of African Union Studies 67Google Scholar at 77.

132 Election-Related Disputes and Political Violence: Strengthening the Role of the African Union in Preventing, Managing, and Resolving Conflict (report of the AU panel of the wise, July 2010) at x.

133 Id at 22–23.

134 Id at 23.

135 Id at 24.

136 PD Williams “The African Union's conflict management capabilities” (October 2011), available at: <file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/IIGG_WorkingPaper7.pdf> (last accessed 4 September 2014) at 13. See also “12th meeting of the panel of the wise of the African Union” (AU press release POW/PR/COMM (XII), 30 April 2012).

137 Report of the Chairperson on the Activities of the Commission Covering the Period July to December 2011: EX. CL/688(XX) (20th ordinary session of the AU Executive Council, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 23–27 January 2012), para 120.

138 P Kagwanja “Issue briefs series”, available at: <http://www.ipstc.org/media/documents/ISSUE%20BRIEF%20No5_Q3-2013.pdf> (last accessed 4 September 2014) at 14.

139 Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peace-keeping and Security, done at Lomé, 10 December 1999, art 20.

140 Jegede “The African Union peace and security architecture”, above at note 113 at 415.

141 The African Union Panel of the Wise: Strengthening Relations with Similar Regional Mechanisms: Report Based on the High Level Retreat of the African Union Panel of the Wise (Burkina Faso, 4 and 5 June 2012) at 36.

142 Communiqué of the 29th summit of SADC heads of state and government, para 6, available at: <http://www.dirco.gov.za/docs/2009/sadc0910.html> (last accessed 6 September 2014).

143 Ibid.

144 Ibid.

145 COMESA Activities: “Peace and security: Decision making organ”, available at: <http://programmes.comesa.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=96&Itemid=114&limitstart=2> (last accessed 6 September 2014).

146 Id, para III.

147 The African Union Panel of the Wise, above at note 141 at 35.

148 Communiqué of the 29th summit, above at note 142, para 6.

149 See respectively, PSC Protocol, art 11(2) and COMESA Activities: “Peace and security”, above at note 145, para III.

150 For political purposes, Nigeria is divided into six geo-political zones: South South, South East, South West, North Central, North East and North West; see Federal Government of Nigeria “Nigeria's path to sustainable development through green economy: Country report to the Rio+20 summit” (June 2012), available at: <http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1023nigerianationalreport.pdf> (last accessed 6 September 2014) at 1.

151 Subject to reappointment for one more term, the tenure of the president of the federation and the governor of a state, and lapsing after four years of office; see Nigeria's 1999 Constitution, arts 135(2) and 180(2) respectively. The Senate and House of Representatives is dissolved after four years; see id, art 64(1).

152 Stewart, EJ “Capabilities or coherence? The evolution of European Union conflict prevention” (2008) 13/2European Foreign Affairs Review 229Google Scholar.

153 Nigeria's 1999 Constitution, sec 15(1).

154 Ikejiaku, BV “The relationship between poverty, conflict and development” (2009) 2/1Journal of Sustainable Development 15CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 16 and 22.

155 United Nations Development Programme “Assessment of development results: Ghana” (2011, UNDP), available at: <file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/ADR-Ghana.pdf> (last accessed 5 September 2014) at xii, 28 and 29.

156 Id at 29.

157 UNESCO “Recommendation concerning education for international understanding, co-operation and peace and education relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms”, adopted by the General Conference at its 18th session, Paris, 19 November 1974, para IV(7).

158 UNESCO “World congress on disarmament education: Final document and report” (UNESCO House, Paris, 9–13 June 1980), para II(2).

159 UNESCO “Declaration and integrated framework of action on education for peace, human rights and democracy”, para II(9).

160 UNESCO “Declaration of principles on tolerance” adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its 28th session, Paris, 16 November 1995, art 3(2).

161 “Final document of the tenth special session of the United Nations General Assembly (SSODI special session on disarmament I)” (A/S - 10/4 UN GA).

162 “International decade for a culture of peace and non-violence for the children of the world (2001–2010)”: UN GA res 53/25.

163 “Final report on the United Nations year for tolerance”: UN GA res A/51/201.

164 “Declaration and programme of action on a culture of peace”: UN GA res A/53/243.

165 “United Nations study on disarmament and non-proliferation education”: UN GA res A/57/124.

166 UNESCO “A declaration on a culture of peace” A/53/243 53rd session, agenda item 31.

167 Adopted by the Organization for African Unity, Nairobi, Kenya, 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986, art 23.

168 Nigeria deposited an instrument of ratification to the charter on 22 July 1983; see: <http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ratification/> (last accessed 10 September 2014).

169 “National Peace Council”, above at note 109.

170 PSC Protocol, art 11(3).

171 “Modalities”, above at note 120, sec IV(8).

172 High Court of Lagos State (Civil Procedure) Rules 2012, order 25, rule 2, sub-rule 1.

173 The Court of Appeal Rules, 2011, order 16, rule 1, sub-rule 1.

174 Id, rule 3(a).

175 High Court of Lagos State (Civil Procedure) Rules 2012, order 39, rule 4(3).

176 This is defined by the Latin maxim expressio unius est exclusio alterius [when one or more things of a class are expressly mentioned, others of the same class are excluded] and interpreted in Nawa v Attorney General of Cross Rivers State [2008] ALL FWLR (pt 401) 807 at 843, paras F – H.

177 Court of Appeal Rules 2011, order 16, rule 4.

178 “Declaration on the report of the Peace and Security Council on its activities and the state of peace and security in Africa” (Assembly/AU/Decl.1(XXI)), adopted by AU Assembly, 21st ordinary session, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26–27 May 2013, para 1.

179 Ibid.

180 Ibid.