Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-fwgfc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-08T15:17:04.190Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

An Apartheid of Souls: Dutch and Afrikaner Colonialism and its Aftermath in Indonesia and South Africa – an Introduction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2011

Deborah James  and
Albert Schrauwers
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

South Africa and Indonesia are countries whose postcolonial trajectory has been characterised by racial, ethnic and religious tensions: tensions whose roots lie in their shared colonial past. Whether simmering and subdued, or overt and necessitating international intervention, these tensions demand a renewed critical perspective by academics who, until now, have made little attempt to transcend the two, previously discrete, arenas of scholarship. This volume aims to initiate a comparative study of the ‘Greater Netherlands’, which has been widely recognised as long overdue. Our aim in this volume is to delineate the distinctive governmental and cultural processes which currently shape the emergent democratisation of these two states, and to establish how far these owe something to Dutch (and related European) influence.

Type
Conference: ‘An Apartheid of Souls’
Information
Itinerario , Volume 27 , Special Issue 3-4: An Apartheid of Souls , November 2003 , pp. 49 - 80
Copyright
Copyright © Research Institute for History, Leiden University 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1 Cooper, F. and Stoler, A. eds, Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Bossenbroek, Martin, Holland op zijn Breedst: Indië en Zuid-Afrika in de tiederlandse cultuur omstreeks 1900 (Amsterdam 1996)Google Scholar; Adriani, N., Verzamelde Geschriften van Dr. N. Adriani (Haarlem 1932)Google Scholar.

3 Schrauwers, A., Colonial ‘Reformation’ in the Highlands of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, 1892-1995 (Toronto 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ribeiro, F.R., ‘The Dutch Diaspora: Boers, Apartheid and Passion’, Itinerario 22/1 (1998) 87–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Ibid.

5 Hefner, Robert W., Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia (Princeton 2000)Google Scholar.

6 Comaroff, J.L and Comaroff, J., Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Comaroff, J.L and Comaroff, J., The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier (Chicago 1998)Google Scholar.

7 Comaroff, , Revelation and Revolution, 435Google Scholar.

8 Ibid., 7.

9 Cf. Thomas, N., Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government (Cambridge 1994) 422Google Scholar; Stoler, A.L, ‘Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 31/1 (1989) 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Thomas, , Colonialism's Culture, 42Google Scholar.

11 Carrier, J.G. ed., Occidentalism: Images of the West (Oxford 1995)Google Scholar.

12 Stoler, , ‘Colonial Categories’, 35–36Google Scholar.

13 Gordon, C., ‘Governmental Rationality: An Introduction’, in: Burchell, G., Gordon, Colin and Miller, Peter eds, The Foucault Effect: Studies in Govemmentality (Chicago 1991)Google Scholar.

14 Scott, D., Refashioning Futures: Criticism after Postcoloniality (Princeton 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Thomas, , Colonialism's Culture, 42Google Scholar.

16 du Toit, A., ‘No Chosen People: The Myth of the Calvinist Origins of Afrikaner Nationalism and Racial Ideology’, American Historical Review 88/4 (1983) 920–952CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Henley, D., Nationalism and Regionalism in a Colonial Context: Minahasa in the Dutch East Indies (Leiden 1996)Google Scholar.

18 Bossenbroek, Indië en Zuid-Afrika.

19 Moodie, T. Dunbar, The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid, and the Afrikaner Civil Religion (Berkeley 1975)Google Scholar; du Toit, B.M., ‘Missionaries, Anthropologists, and the Policies of the Dutch Reformed Church’, Journal of Modem African Studies 22/4 (1984) 624CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Stuurman, S., Verzuiling, Kapitalisme en Patriarchaat: Aspecten van de ontwikkeling van de modeme staat in Nederland (Nijmegen 1983)Google Scholar.

21 Bossenbroek, Indië en Zuid-Afrika.

22 Kossmann, E.H., De Lage Landen 1780-1940: Anderhalve eeuw Nederland en Belgie (Amsterdam, Brussel 1982)Google Scholar.

23 Stuurman, S., ‘1848: Revolutionary Reform in the Netherlands’, European History Quarterly 21 (1991) 445–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Kruijt, D.J.P. and Walter, G., ‘Verzuiling en Ontzuiling als Sociologisch Proces’ in: Hollander, A.N.J. et al. eds, Drift en Koers: Een halve eeuw sociale verandering in Nederland (Assen 1968) 227–63Google Scholar.

25 Stuurman, , Verzuiling, Kapitalisme, 45–52Google Scholar.

26 Kruijt, ‘Verzuiling en Ontzuiling’.

27 Weber, M., The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York 1930)Google Scholar.

28 Stuurman, , Verzuiling, Kapitalisme, 323–334Google Scholar; cf.Knippenberg, Hans and Pater, Ben de, De eenwording van Nederland: Schaalvergroting en integratie sinds 1800 (Nijmegen 1988)Google Scholar.

29 Stuurman, Verzuiling, Kapitalisme.

30 Woldring, H.E.S. & Kuiper, D.Th., Reformatorische Maatschappijkritiek: Ontwikkelingen op net gebied van sociale filosofie en sociologie in de kring van het nederlandse protestantisme van de 19e eeuw tot heden (Kampen 1980) 22–29Google Scholar.

31 van Rooden, P., ‘History, the Nation, and Religion: The Transformations of the Dutch Religious Past’ in: van der Veer, Peter and Lehman, Hartmut eds, Nation and Religion: Perspectives on Europe and Asia (Princeton 1999) 107Google Scholar.

32 Lijphart, A., Verzuiling, paciflcatie en kentering in de Nederlandse politiek (Amsterdam 1968)Google Scholar.

33 Stuurman, , Verzuiling, Kapitalisme, 105–39Google Scholar.

34 Boschloo, T.J., De Productiemaatschappij: Liberalisme, economische wetenschap en het vraagstuk der armoede in Nederland 1800-1875 (Hilversum 1989)Google Scholar.

35 Gouda, F., Poverty and Political Culture: The Rhetoric of Social Welfare in the Netherlands and France, 1815-1854 (Lanham 1995)Google Scholar.

36 Reenders, H., Altematieve Zending: Ottho Gerhard Heldring (1804-1876) en de verbreiding van het Christendom in Nederlands-Indië (Kampen 1991) 64–66Google Scholar.

37 Ibid., 68-70.

38 Stuurman, , Verzuiling, Kapitalisme, 189Google Scholar.

39 Rita Smith Kipp, this volume.

40 Ibid.

41 Henley, D., Nationalism and Regionalism in a Colonial Context: Minahasa in the Dutch East Indies (Leiden 1996)Google Scholar.

42 Geertz, Clifford, The Religion of Java (Chicago 1960) 163Google Scholar.

43 Schrauwers, , Colonial ‘Reformation, 17Google Scholar.

44 Kahn, J.S., Constituting the Minangkabau: Peasants, Culture and Modernity in Colonial Indonesia (Providence 1993)Google Scholar.

45 Lev, D.S., ‘Colonial Law and the Genesis of the Indonesian State’, Indonesia 40 (1985) 57–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 Verkuyl, J., Ketegarigan antara Imperialisme dan Kolonialisme Barat dan Zending pada Masa Politik Kolonial Etis (Jakarta 1990) 35Google Scholar.

47 Coté, this volume.

48 Anderson, B.R.O'G., ‘Old State, New Society: Indonesia's Mew Order in Comparative Historical Perspective’, Journal of Asian Studies 42/3-4 (1983) 479CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 See for example Locher-Scholten, E., Sumatraans sultanaat en koloniale staat: De relatie Djambi-Batavia (1830-1907) en het Nederlandse imperialisme (Leiden 1994)Google Scholar.

50 Suminto, H.A., Politik Islam Hindia Belanda (Jakarta 1986) 12Google Scholar.

51 Lev, , ‘Colonial Law’, 66Google Scholar.

52 Locher-Scholten, , Sumatraans sultanaat, 285–287Google Scholar.

53 Cf. Gordon, , ‘Governmental Rationality’, 20Google Scholar.

54 Kipp, , Dutch Colonial Mission, 29–33Google Scholar; Schrauwers, , Colonial ‘Reformation’, 31–59Google Scholar.

55 Atkinson, J.M., ‘Religions in Dialogue: The Construction of an Indonesian Minority Religion’, American Ethnologist 10/4 (1983) 684–696CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 Schrauwers, , Colonial ‘Reformation’, 51–53Google Scholar.

57 Adriani, , Verzamelde Ceschriften, 183Google Scholar.

58 Pels, P., and Salemink, O., ‘The Anthropology of Colonialism: Culture, History, and the Emergence of Western Govemmentality’, Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997) 172CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 Toit, Du, ‘Missionaries, Anthropologists’, 621Google Scholar.

60 Coté, this volume.

61 Stoler, A.L, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) 130Google Scholar.

62 Coté, this volume.

63 Stoler, ‘Colonial Categories’Google Scholar.

64 Ibid.

65 Stoler, , Race and the Education, 107Google Scholar.

66 Coté, this volume.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid.

69 Ibid.

70 Coté and Schrauwers, this volume.

71 Schrauwers, Colonial ‘Reformation’; Kipp, Dutch Colonial Mission.

72 Randwijck, S.C.G. Graaf van, Handelen en Denken in Dienst der lending: Oegstgeest 1697-1942 (The Hague 1981) 264–288Google Scholar.

73 Haire, J., The Character and Theological Struggle of the Church in Halmahera, Indonesia, 1941-1979 (Frankfurt 1981) 60–62Google Scholar.

74 Bowen, J.R., Muslims Through Discourse: Religion and Ritual in Gayo Society (Princeton 1993)Google Scholar.

75 Suminto, H.A., Politik Islam Hindia Belanda (Jakarta 1986) 122Google Scholar.

76 Giliomee, H., ‘The Beginnings of Afrikaner Ethnic Consciousness, 1850-1915. The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa’ in: Vail, L. ed, The Creation of Tribalism in South and Central Africa: Essays in the Political Economy of Ideology (Berkeley 1988) 21–54Google Scholar.

77 Giliomee, H. and Elphick, R., The Shaping of South African Society, 1652-1840 (Cape Town 1989)Google Scholar.

78 Beinart, W., and Dubow, S., ‘Introduction: The Historiography of Segregation and Apartheid’ in: Beinart, W. and Dubow, S. eds, Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Routledge 1995) 5Google Scholar.

79 Ibid.

80 Dubow, S., ‘Race, Civilization and Culture: The Elaboration of Segregationist Discourse in the Inter-war Years’ in: Marks, S. and Trapido, S., The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South Africa (London 1987) 71–94Google Scholar; ‘Ethnic Euphemisms and Racial Echoes’, Journal of Southern African Studies 20, (1994) 355–370CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-36 (London 1989)Google Scholar.

81 Cooper and Staler, Tensions of Empire.

82 Ibid.

83 Ibid.

84 Dubow, , ‘Race, Civilization and Culture’, 71Google Scholar.

85 Giliomee, this volume.

86 du Toit, A., ‘Puritanism in Africa: Afrikaner Calvinism and Kuyperian Neo-Calvinism in Late 19th Century South Africa’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 27/2 (1985)Google Scholar.

87 Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom.

88 Giliomee, this volume.

89 Du Toit, ‘No Chosen People’.

90 Giliomee, , ‘Beginnings of Afrikaner’, 922–924, 939fGoogle Scholar.

91 Bossenbroek, , Holland op zijn Breedst, 10Google Scholar.

92 Toit, Du, ‘No Chosen People’Google Scholar; Giliomee, , ‘Beginnings of Afrikaner’Google Scholar.

93 Toit, Du, ‘No Chosen People’Google Scholar.

94 Sharp, J., ‘Ethnogenesis and Ethnic Mobilization: A Comparative Perspective on a South African Dilemma’ in: Wilmsen, E. and McAllister, P. eds, The Politics of Difference: Ethnic Promises in a World of Power (Chicago 1996) 87Google Scholar.

95 Toit, Du, ‘No Chosen People’, 951Google Scholar.

96 Moodie, , The Rise of Afrikanerdom, 24Google Scholar.

97 Toit, Du, ‘No Chosen People’, 952Google Scholar.

98 Marks, and Trapido, , ‘The politics of race’, 14Google Scholar.

99 Ibid.; Moodie, , The Rise of Afrikanerdom, 218Google Scholar.

100 Moodie, , The Rise of Afrikanerdom, 196–207Google Scholar.

101 Duffy, J.L, ‘Afrikaner Unity, the National Party, and the Afrikaner Nationalist Radical Right in Stellenbosch, 1934-1938’ (Dphil thesis, Oxford 2001)Google Scholar.

102 Kinghorn, J., ‘Modernization and Apartheid: the Afrikaner Churches’ in: Elphick, R. and Davenport, R. eds, Christianity in South Africa (Cape Town 1987) 138Google Scholar.

103 O'Meara, D., Volkskapitalisme: Class, Capital and Ideology in the Development of Afrikaner Nationalism, 1934-1948 (Cambridge 1983)Google Scholar.

104 Giliomee, this volume.

105 Dubow, Racial segregation.

106 Kinghom, , ‘Modernization and Apartheid’, 45Google Scholar.

107 Dubow, , ‘Ethnic Euphemisms and Racial Echoes’, 356–357Google Scholar.

108 Bonner, P., Delius, P., and Posel, D., ‘The Shaping of Apartheid: Contradiction, Continuity and Popular Struggle’, Apartheid's Genesis, 1935-1962 (Johannesburg 1993)Google Scholar.

109 Giliomee, this volume.

110 Kinghom, ‘Modernization and Apartheid’.

111 Ibid.

112 Comaroff and Comaroff, Revelation and Revolution; Lalouviere, Paul La Hausse de, Restless Identities: Signatures of Nationalism, Zulu Ethnicity, and History in the Lives of Petros Lamula (c. 1881-1948) and Lymon Maling (1889-c. 1936) (Pietermaritzburg 2000)Google Scholar.

113 Campbell, James T., Songs of lion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York 1995)Google Scholar; Hughes, H., ‘Politics and Society in Inanda, Natal: The Qadi under Chief Mqhawe, c. 1840-1896’ (PhD dissertation London 1996)Google Scholar.

114 Harries, P., Work, Culture, and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c. 1860-1910 (London 1994)Google Scholar.

115 La Hausse, Restless Identities.

116 Delius, P., The Land Belongs to Us: The Pedi Polity, the Boers and the British in the Nineteenth-Century Transvaal (Johannesburg 1983)Google Scholar.

117 Comaroff, J.L. and Comaroff, J., ‘The madman and the Migrant: Work and Labour in the Historical Consciousness of a South African People’, American Ethnologist 14/2 (1987)Google Scholar.

118 Harries, P., ‘Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: The Emergence of Ethnicity among the Tsonga-speakers of South Africa’ in: Vail, ed., Creation of TribalismGoogle Scholar.

119 Hausse, La, Restless Identities, 99Google Scholar.

120 Harries, ‘Exclusion, Classification’.

121 Elphick, R., ‘Introduction: Christianity in South African History’ in: Elphick, R. and Davenport, R. eds, Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social, and Cultural History (Berkeley 1997) 1–14Google Scholar.

122 Hexham, I. and Poewe, K., ‘The Spread of Christianity among Whites and Blacks ion Transorangia’ in: Elphick, and Davenport, , Christianity in South Africa, 133Google Scholar.

123 Hammond-Tooke, W.D., Imperfect Interpreters: South Africa's Anthropologists, 1920-1990 (Johannesburg 1997)Google Scholar; Giliomee, this volume.

124 Scriba, G. and Lislerud, G., ‘Lutheran Missions and Churches in South Africa’ in: Elphick, and Davenport, , Christianity in South Africa, 175Google Scholar.

125 Waldman, this volume.

126 Oakley, Waldman, this volume.

127 Kipp, Dutch Colonial Mission.

128 James, this volume.

129 Carstens, P., ‘Restructuring Souls: Missions To The Nama (C1800-C1950)’, paper presented at "An Apartheid of Souls’ workshop, London School of Economics, 2000Google Scholar.

130 James, this volume.

131 Gordon, R., ‘Apartheid's Anthropologists: Notes on the Genealogy of Afrikaner Volkekundiges’, American Ethnologist 15/3-4 (1988) 535–553CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hammond-Tooke, , Imperfect InterpretersGoogle Scholar; Sharp, J., ‘The roots and Development of Volkekunde in South Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies 8 (1981) 16–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

132 Hyslop, Waldman, this volume.

133 Waldman, this volume.

134 Hyslop, this volume.

135 Cooper and Stoler, Tensions of Empire, 5.