1 See details in the below section on “The Recent Re-emphasis on Solidarity”.

2 See, for example, the discussion Mills, in Kurt, “Neo-Humanitarianism: The Role of International Humanitarian Norms and Organizations in Contemporary Conflict”, Global Governance, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Redfield, Peter, “The Impossible Problem of Neutrality”, in Bornstein, Erica and Redfield, Peter (eds), Forces of Compassion: Humanitarianism between Ethics and Politics, SAR Press, Santa Fe, NM, 2011Google Scholar; Rieffer-Flanagan, Barbara Anne, “Is Neutral Humanitarianism Dead? Red Cross Neutrality: Walking the Tightrope of Neutral Humanitarianism”, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 4, 2009CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wieland, Carsten, Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid through Violent Regimes, Bloomsbury, New York, 2021CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Hugo Slim, “Solidarity, Not Neutrality, Will Characterize Western Aid to Ukraine”, Ethics and International Affairs, 3 October 2022, available at: www.ethicsandinternationalaffairs.org/online-exclusives/solidarity-not-neutrality-will-characterize-western-aid-to-ukraine (all internet references were accessed in February 2024).

4 Anne Décobert, “Myanmar's Human Rights Crisis Justifies Foregoing Neutrality for a Solidarity-Based Approach to Humanitarianism”, Melbourne Asia Review, 4 August 2021, available at: https://melbourneasiareview.edu.au/myanmars-human-rights-crisis-justifies-foregoing-neutrality-for-a-solidarity-based-approach-to-humanitarianism/; Adelina Kamal, Beyond the “Egosystem”: A Case for Locally Led Humanitarian Resistance, The Humanitarian Leader Working Paper No. 041, Centre for Humanitarian Leadership, Deakin University, Burwood, November 2023.

5 See e.g. Slim, Hugo, “Relief Agencies and Moral Standing in War: Principles of Humanity, Neutrality, Impartiality and Solidarity”, Development in Practice, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1997CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, Richard Ashby and Brown, Richard D., “Introduction”, in Wilson, Richard Ashby and Brown, Richard D. (eds), Humanitarianism and Suffering: The Mobilization of Empathy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, p. 2Google Scholar; Chandler, David, “The Road to Military Humanitarianism: How the Human Rights NGOs Shaped a New Humanitarian Agenda”, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2001, p. 683CrossRefGoogle Scholar; African Rights, Humanitarianism Unbound? Current Dilemmas Facing Multimandate Relief Operations in Political Emergencies, discussion paper, London, 1994. See also the discussion about humanitarian typologies below.

6 Fiona Terry, “Taking Action, Not Sides: The Benefits of Humanitarian Neutrality in War”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 21 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2022/06/21/taking-action-not-sides-humanitarian-neutrality/.

7 See e.g. Rakopoulos, Theodoros, “Solidarity: The Egalitarian Tensions of a Bridge-Concept”, Social Anthropology, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wellens, Karel, “Revisiting Solidarity as a (Re-)Emerging Constitutional Principle: Some Further Reflections”, in Wolfrum, Rüdiger and Kojima, Chie (eds), Solidarity: A Structural Principle of International Law, Springer, Heidelberg, 2010Google Scholar; Kassoti, Eva and Idriz, Narin (eds), The Principle of Solidarity: International and EU Law Perspectives, Asser Press, The Hague, 2023CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bayertz, Kurt (ed.), Solidarity, Springer, Dordrecht, 1999CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kolers, Avery, A Moral Theory of Solidarity, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Amongst other specialist meanings, the term “solidarity” has a specific history related to the European Union, to trade unions and to socialist thinking more generally regarding international solidarity of the proletariat, including against militarism: see e.g. Sally J. Scholz, Political Solidarity, Penn State University Press, University Park, PA, 2008, pp. 8–9; Rosa Luxemburg, “War and the Working Class”, January 1916, available at: https://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=952.

8 Within the humanitarian sector, solidarity is also relevant to disaster relief and, more broadly, is an important concept regarding the protection offered to refugees. However, this article focuses primarily on humanitarian action in situations of armed conflict.

9 Darryl Li, “The Universal Enemy: A Reply”, The Immanent Frame, 8 July 2020, available at: https://tif.ssrc.org/2020/07/08/the-universal-enemy-a-reply/.

10 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 5.

11 Ibid., pp. 5, 11. A third variant, civic solidarity, relates to duties between a civic group such as taxpayers within a welfare State and is not discussed further here.

12 Ibid., pp. 5–6, 10, 12–13; Scholz, Sally J., “Seeking Solidarity”, Philosophy Compass, Vol. 10, No. 10, 2015, pp. 728–729Google Scholar; Scholz, Sally J., “Political Solidarity and Violent Resistance”, Journal of Social Philosophy, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2007, p. 39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 14.

14 Tom Scott-Smith, “Humanitarian Dilemmas in a Mobile World”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2016, p. 19 fn. 54.

15 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 6.

16 For example, while works cannot necessarily cover everything, solidarity does not appear in “ReliefWeb Glossary of Humanitarian Terms”, ReliefWeb, 2008, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/reliefweb-glossary-humanitarian-terms-enko; Tim Allen, Anna McDonald and Henry Radice (eds), Humanitarianism: A Dictionary of Concepts, Routledge, London and New York, 2018; or Pietro Verri, Dictionary of the International Law of Armed Conflict, ICRC, Geneva, 1992. There is, however, an entry on solidarity in the more recent Antonio De Lauri (ed.), Humanitarianism: Keywords, Brill, Leiden and Boston, MA, 2020. Also, the Geneva Centre of Humanitarian Studies’ Humanitarian Encyclopedia, a collaborative online project, has an entry on solidarity in progress; see Geneva Centre of Humanitarian Studies, “Solidarity”, in Humanitarian Encyclopedia, available at: https://humanitarianencyclopedia.org/concept/solidarity.

17 Beer, Henrik, “Red Cross Solidarity”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 12, No. 130, 1972, p. 4;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Henry Dunant, Fraternité et charité internationales en temps de Guerre, Paris, 1866; Jean Pictet, Red Cross Principles, ICRC, Geneva, 1956, p. 141 fn. 1.

18 See Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmerman (eds), Commentary on the Additional Protocols, ICRC, Geneva, 1987, para. 3240.

19 See the article by Marina Sharpe in this issue of the Review: Sharpe, Marina, “It's All Relative: The Origins, Legal Character and Normative Content of the Humanitarian Principles”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 106, No. 925, 2024Google Scholar, Annex 1. See also Miriam Bradley, The Politics and Everyday Practice of International Humanitarianism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023, p. 241. Over 500 organizations have adopted the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organizations in Disaster Relief, which includes the principles of humanity, impartiality and independence. See generally, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: Ethics and Tools for Humanitarian Action, Geneva, 2015, p. 7; IFRC, “Signatories of the Code of Conduct”, available at: www.ifrc.org/code-conduct-signatories.

20 Geneva Centre of Humanitarian Studies, above note 16.

21 Secretary-General of the United Nations, Our Common Agenda: Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations, New York, 2021, p. 3.

22 Zainab Moallin, Karen Hargrave and Patrick Saez, Navigating Narratives in Ukraine: Humanitarian Response Amid Solidarity and Resistance, Humanitarian Policy Group Working Paper, Overseas Development Institute, London, September 2023.

23 Gustave Moynier, Ce que c'est que la Croix-Rouge, Geneva, 1874, p. 6. As well as solidarity as explained in the text, the National Societies were to observe “foresight, which means that preparations should be made in advance, in peacetime, to provide assistance should war break out; … centralization, which implies that there is only one Society in each country, but whose activities extend throughout the entire national territory; and mutuality, in the sense that care is given to all wounded and sick people irrespective of their nationality”. Quoted in IFRC and ICRC, above note 19, p. 12.

24 See, generally, H. Beer, above note 17; Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: A Commentary, IFRC, Geneva, 1979, pp. 90–92; J. Pictet, above note 17, pp. 140, 153.

25 Compare Jean G. Lossier, Fellowship: The Moral Significance of the Red Cross, La Baconnière, Geneva, 1948; and Jean G. Lossier, Solidarité: Signification morale de la Croix-Rouge, Editions de la Baconnière, Neuchatel, 1947.

26 J. Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, above note 24, p. 91.

27 H. Beer, above note 17, p. 15.

28 J. Pictet, above note 17, pp. 3, 93, 153–154. See also discussion in H. Beer, above note 17, p. 12 fn. 8.

29 Universality is understood to mean that the “International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, in which all Societies have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties in helping each other, is worldwide”: IFRC and ICRC, above note 19, pp. 10, 12, 80–82.

30 See J. Pictet, above note 17, p. 142, regarding sharing in the fellowship which unites the members of the Movement as a condition for recognition of National Societies; Katrien Beeckman, “From Fundamental Principles to Individual Action: Making the Principles Come Alive to Promote a Culture of Non-Violence and Peace”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016, pp. 273 (Table 1), 276.

31 Kurt Bayertz, “Four Uses of ‘Solidarity’”, in K. Bayertz (ed.), above note 7, p. 5.

32 Ken Reshaur, “Concepts of Solidarity in the Political Theory of Hannah Arendt”, Canadian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1992, cited in T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 16.

33 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 15.

34 For example, the Institute of International Law's November 2023 declaration concerning the Israel–Hamas conflict expresses the Institute's “solidarity and compassion with all the victims and their bereaved families”. Institute of International Law, “Declaration of the Institute of International Law on the Present Situation in the Middle East”, 19 November 2023, available at: www.idi-iil.org/en/declaration-de-linstitut-de-droit-international-sur-la-situation-presente-au-moyen-orient/.

35 Roger Mac Ginty, Everyday Peace, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021, pp. 67, 136 (and see p. 70 regarding the various depths of solidarity); S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 2. See also Matthew Clarke and Brett W. Parris, Vale the Humanitarian Principles: New Principles for a New Environment, The Humanitarian Leader Working Paper No. 001, Centre for Humanitarian Leadership, Deakin University, Burwood, 2019, pp. 9–10.

36 T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, pp. 15–16. See also Stuart Gordon and Antonio Donini, “Romancing Principles and Human Rights: Are Humanitarian Principles Salvageable?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2015, p. 92, describing Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) as solidarist under this framing. See also Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, adopted by the 25th International Conference of the Red Cross at Geneva in October 1986 and amended by the 26th International Conference at Geneva in December 1995 and by the 29th International Conference at Geneva in June 2006, Preamble, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/statutes-en-a5.pdf.

37 Impartiality has been defined as making no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions, endeavouring to relieve the suffering of individuals guided solely by their needs, and giving priority to the most urgent cases of distress. See ICRC, “The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross ad Red Crescent Movement”, library/research guide, 4 May 2001, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/cross-files/the-fundamental-principles-of-the-international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement/.

38 Neutrality has been defined as not taking sides in hostilities or engaging at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature, in order to continue to enjoy the confidence of all. See ibid.

39 J. Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, above note 24, p. 57.

40 Mirjana Spoljaric, “The World Needs Neutrals”, New York Times, 30 May 2023, available at: www.nytimes.com/2023/05/30/opinion/red-cross-ukraine-russia.html.

41 T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 16; Larissa Fast, Aid in Danger: The Perils and Promise of Humanitarianism, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA, 2014, p. 98.

42 African Rights, above note 5, p. 27. See also discussion in H. Slim, above note 5, p. 349.

43 Miriam Bradley, “Five Shades of Grey: Variants of ‘Political’ Humanitarianism”, Disasters, Vol. 46, No. 4, 2022. See also HERE-Geneva, Unpacking Humanitarianism, 2020, p. 1, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/unpacking-humanitarianism-april-2020, explaining that labels such as single-, dual- and multi-mandate organizations are limited in their meaningfulness.

44 M. Bradley, above note 43, p. 1038; M. Bradley, above note 19, p. 237. But see also T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, pp. 6–9, discussing the “enduring tension between advocacy and neutrality”.

45 See e.g. S. Gordon and A. Donini, above note 35, pp. 82–83; D. Chandler, above note 5, pp. 3–4.

46 With the political actors being maximalists or minimalists as per Thomas G. Weiss, “Principles, Politics, and Humanitarian Action”, Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1999, pp. 2–4. But see also the published responses to Weiss's article clarifying certain aspects, particularly Joelle Tanguy and Fiona Terry, “Humanitarian Responsibility and Committed Action”, Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1999. See also L. Fast, above note 41, pp. 92–95; Michael Barnett, “Humanitarianism Transformed”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 3, No. 4, 2005, p. 728; ICRC, Connecting with the Past: The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: A Critical Historical Perspective, ICRC Conference Report, Geneva, 2015, p. 11, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/cross-files/wp-content/uploads/sites/106/2017/08/Connecting-with-the-Past-REPORT-updated-01.-2016.pdf: “There has always been a dual motivation behind the humanitarian impulse, encapsulated in the Principle of humanity: one inspired by a spirit of ‘charity’ and compassion, and one driven by a more militant thirst for justice.”

47 T. G. Weiss, above note 46, p. 3. On the consent issue being in fact a separate question, see discussion in M. Bradley, above note 43, p. 1029.

48 H. Slim, above note 5, pp. 349–350. See also below note 126 and associated text.

49 For the purposes of examining organizations’ public communication strategies. Dennis Dijkzeul and Markus Moke, “Public Communication Strategies of International Humanitarian Organizations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 87, No. 860, 2005.

50 Ibid., pp. 677–678.

51 Eva Bjøreng, “Taking a Stand: Solidarity and Neutrality in Humanitarian Action”, Humanitarian Exchange, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2003, pp. 9–10. See also the NPA website, available at: www.npaid.org/about-us.

52 See e.g. D. Dijkzeul and M. Moke, above note 49; T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 17; Hugo Slim, Humanitarian Resistance: Its Ethical and Operational Importance, Humanitarian Practice Network Paper No. 87, Overseas Development Institute, September 2022, pp. 8–9; L. Fast, above note 41, p. 98; Daniel G. Maxwell and Peter Walker, Shaping the Humanitarian World, Taylor & Francis, Oxford, 2008, p. 122.

53 E. Bjøreng, above note 51, p. 10.

54 Ibid.

55 D. G. Maxwell and P. Walker, above note 52, pp. 122–123.

56 L. Fast, above note 41, p. 98; T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 14.

57 See Didier Fassin, “Inequality of Lives, Hierarchies of Humanity: Moral Commitments and Ethical Dilemmas of Humanitarianism”, in Ilana Feldman and Miriam Ticktin (eds), In the Name of Humanity: The Government of Threat and Care, Duke University Press, Durham NC, 2010, p. 239. See also Sophia Hoffman, “Impartiality”, in A. De Lauri (ed.), above note 16; M. Bradley, above note 19, p. 16.

58 See Frits Kalshoven, “Impartiality and Neutrality in Humanitarian Law and Practice”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 29, No. 273, 1989, pp. 524–525; Michael Bothe, Karl Josef Partsch and Waldermar Solf, New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague and Boston, MA, 1982, p. 486. See also the discussion in Hugo Slim, Humanitarian Ethics: A Guide to the Morality of Aid in War and Disaster, Hurst & Co., London, 2015, pp. 57–64.

59 Jérémie Labbé, “How Do Humanitarian Principles Support Humanitarian Effectiveness?”, in CHS Alliance, Humanitarian Accountability Report, 2015, p. 22.

60 T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 17.

61 See e.g. Alessandro Volpe, “Doing Justice to Solidarity: On the Moral Role of Mutual Support”, Phenomenology and Mind, Vol. 24, 2023, pp. 259–260; K. Bayertz, above note 31, p. 19.

62 See also Irène Herrmann, “L'humanitaire est-il une forme de solidarité?”, in Michel Wieviorka (ed.), Les solidarités: Les entretiens d'Auxerre, Éditions Sciences Humaines, Auxerre, 2017, p. 233; Lilie Chouliaraki, “Post-Humanitarianism”, in T. Allen, A. Macdonald and H. Radice (eds), above note 16, p. 265.

63 See also discussion in Z. Moallin, K. Hargrave and P. Saez, above note 22, p. 23.

64 See e.g. Carl Marklund, Nordic Specificity in the Contemporary Humanitarian Landscape, Humanitarian Policy Group Working Paper, Overseas Development Institute, London, January 2016, pp. 21–24; Z. Moallin, K. Hargrave and P. Saez, above note 22, pp. 7, 12–13.

65 H. Slim, above note 52, p. 7.

66 Neutral approaches have also been questioned in relation to Syria, amongst other armed conflicts, without an explicit focus on solidarity per se. See C. Wieland, above note 2.

67 M. Clarke and B. W. Parris, above note 35, p. 4. The changing humanitarian landscape was described largely in terms of current forced displacement and statelessness, alongside estimations of further displacement due to the effects of climate change, rather than armed conflict: see pp. 4–5. In an accompanying piece, wealth disparity is also mentioned: Matthew Clarke, “Opinion: The Humanitarian Sector Needs New Principles”, Devex, 19 August 2019, available at: www.devex.com/news/opinion-the-humanitarian-sector-needs-new-principles-95493.

68 Ibid., pp. 9–10. Focusing on the issue of forced displacement, the authors also consider “solidarity” in the sense of mutual solidarity between populations of host countries and resettled refugees and asylum-seekers. See p. 10.

69 Ibid., p. 9.

70 Ibid., p. 10.

71 Ibid., p. 9.

72 Ibid., p. 9.

73 Ibid., p. 9.

74 Ibid., p. 10.

75 Matthew Clarke and Brett W. Parris, “Do Humanitarian Principles Still Fit Their Purpose? Suggested Values for a New Global Environment”, TRC Journal of Humanitarian Action, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2022.

76 Heba Aly, “Today's Humanitarianism Has Reached Its Limits. What Will Take Its Place?”, presentation given at the Humanitarian Leadership Conference, Centre for Humanitarian Leadership, Deakin University, Burwood, 28–29 April 2021, available at: http://tinyurl.com/jw6tszvn.

77 Ibid.

78 See e.g. “Rethinking Humanitarianism Podcast”, The New Humanitarian, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/podcast/rethinking-humanitarianism.

79 H. Aly, above note 76.

80 Ibid.

81 Arjun Claire, “Reason, Emotion and Solidarity in Humanitarian Advocacy”, Journal of Humanitarian Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2021.

82 Adelina Kamal and Daniel Benowitz, “Supporting the People of Myanmar: It's about Political Will”, Humanitarian Practice Network, 19 October 2022, available at: https://odihpn.org/publication/supporting-the-people-of-myanmar-its-about-political-will/; Adelina Kamal, Naw Hser Hser and Khin Ohmar, “Myanmar's Neglected Crisis Demands a Different Response”, The New Humanitarian, 1 February 2023, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2023/02/01/Myanmar-coup-Ukraine-cross-border-aid.

83 Hugo Slim, “Humanitarian Resistance and Military Dictatorship”, Humanitarian Practice Network, 14 April 2021, available at: https://odihpn.org/publication/humanitarian-resistance-and-military-dictatorship/.

84 A. Décobert, above note 4.

85 Ibid.

86 Ibid.

87 A. Kamal and D. Benowitz, above note 82.

88 H. Slim, above note 52.

89 Ibid., pp. 7, 20.

90 See e.g. Patrick Saez and John Bryant, “Two Ways the Humanitarian System Should Harness Global Solidarity with Ukraine”, Overseas Development Institute, 3 March 2022, available at: https://odi.org/en/insights/two-ways-the-humanitarian-system-should-harness-global-solidarity-with-ukraine/; Z. Moallin, K. Hargrave and P. Saez, above note 22.

91 M. Spoljaric, above note 40.

92 See e.g. Tiara Ataii, “Why Ukraine Is Moving the Needle on Old Debates about Humanitarian Neutrality’, The New Humanitarian, 16 May 2023, available at: https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2023/05/16/ukraine-debates-humanitarian-neutrality-debates; Hajer Naili, “Neutrality in Humanitarian Actions Means Talking to All Parties to a Conflict”, Just Security, 28 March 2022, available at: www.justsecurity.org/80882/neutrality-in-humanitarian-actions-means-talking-to-all-parties-to-a-conflict/; “Rethinking Humanitarianism Podcast: Weapons as Aid?”, The New Humanitarian, 12 July 2022, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/podcast/2022/07/12/Weapons-aid-ukraine; H. Slim, above note 3; Z. Moallin, K. Hargrave and P. Saez, above note 22.

93 H. Slim, above note 3; Hugo Slim, Solferino 21: Warfare, Civilians and Humanitarians in the Twenty-First Century, Hurst, London, 2022, pp. 116, 127. See also Jessica Alexander, “Is Ukraine the Next Tipping Point for Humanitarian Aid Reform?”, The New Humanitarian, 25 July 2022, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2022/07/25/Ukraine-aid-reform-local-donors-neutrality.

94 H. Slim, above note 3.

95 H. Slim, above note 52, pp. 7–8.

96 Hugo Slim, “You Don't Have to Be Neutral to Be a Good Humanitarian”, The New Humanitarian, 27 August 2020, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2020/08/27/humanitarian-principles-neutrality.

97 Regarding debate about the humanitarian principles going through cycles of dormancy and hyperactivity, and currently being reawakened, see Sophia Swithern, “The Principles Debate Just Woke Up: Now Where's the Evidence about the Practice?”, Humanitarian Practice Network, 2 February 2023, available at: https://odihpn.org/publication/the-principles-debate-just-woke-up-now-wheres-the-evidence-about-the-practice/.

98 Ulrike von Pilar, “Humanitäre Hilfe als Kampfmittel?”, Centre for Humanitarian Action, 12 July 2022, available at: https://www.chaberlin.org/blog/humanitaere-hilfe-als-kampfmittel/; M. Spoljaric, above note 40; Robert Mardini, “Back to Basics: Humanitarian Principles in Contemporary Armed Conflict”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 16 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2022/06/16/back-to-basics-humanitarian-principles/; Nils Melzer and Elizabeth Rushing, “Humanitarian Neutrality in Contemporary Armed Conflict: A Conversation with Nils Melzer”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 26 January 2023, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2023/01/26/humanitarian-neutrality-in-contemporary-armed-conflict-a-conversation-with-nils-melzer/. See also Ed Schenkenberg van Mierop, “Coming Clean on Neutrality and Independence: The Need to Assess the Application of Humanitarian Principles”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No 897–898, 2016, pp. 300, 311; Fiona Terry, “The International Committee of the Red Cross in Afghanistan: Reasserting the Neutrality of Humanitarian Action”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 881, 2011, p. 187; Pierre Krähenbühl, “The Neutral Intermediary Role of the ICRC: At the Heart of Humanitarian Action”, 7 July 2008, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/interview/neutral-intermediary-interview-070708.htm; S. Gordon and A. Donini, above note 36, pp. 106, 109.

99 J. Labbé, above note 59, p. 19.

100 ICRC, “ICRC's Central Tracing Agency Bureau for the International Armed Conflict between the Russian Federation and Ukraine: Providing Answers to Families”, 2 June 2022, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/central-tracing-agency-missing-persons-ukraine; Imogen Foulkes, “Israel–Gaza War: The Red Cross's Delicate Role in Hostage Crises”, BBC News, 27 November 2023, available at: www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67520263.

101 Marnie Lloydd, “‘A Few Not Too Troublesome Restrictions’: Humanitarianism, Solidarity, Anti-Militarism, Peace”, Critical Legal Thinking, 22 November 2022, available at: https://criticallegalthinking.com/2022/11/22/a-few-not-too-troublesome-restrictions-humanitarianism-solidarity-anti-militarism-peace/.

102 M. Clarke and B. W. Parris, above note 75.

103 See e.g. S. Gordon and A. Donini, above note 36, pp. 95–98.

104 See also Jenny Edkins, “Humanitarianism, Humanity, Human”, Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2003, p. 256, discussing David Rieff; M. Lloydd, above note 101, discussing Michael Sfard's work on the dilemma between the “wall” and the “gate” in human rights efforts.

105 M. Spoljaric, above note 40; Pierre Krähenbühl, “The ICRC's Approach to Contemporary Security Challenges: A Future for Independent and Neutral Humanitarian Action”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 86, No. 855, 2004, p. 513. See also arguments made in H. Slim, above note 96.

106 Jérémie Labbé, “Rethinking Humanitarianism: Adapting to 21st Century Challenges”, International Peace Institute, November 2012, p. 21, available at: www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/ipi_pub_rethinking_humanitarianism.pdf.

107 For example, members of local volunteer committees in Khartoum have expressed an effort to detach their humanitarian volunteering from any political activities: Ela Yokes, “‘I See It as My Duty to Help for as Long as I Can’: Sudanese Volunteers on Supporting Hospitals and Opposing the War”, The New Humanitarian, 2 June 2023, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/authors/ela-yokes. The US- and Yemeni-run Yemen Relief and Reconstruction Foundation, for instance, is described as operating with a policy of neutrality and impartiality concerning the conflict which is credited with providing its network of local volunteers with critical trust and access across the country: Ann Marie Kimball and Aisha Jumaan, “Yemen: The Challenge of Delivering Aid in an Active Conflict Zone”, Global Security: Health, Science and Policy, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2020.

108 ICRC, International Development Committee Inquiry: The Global Humanitarian System: Submission by the International Committee of the Red Cross, 2016, p. 3, available at: http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/international-development-committee/the-global-humanitarian-system/written/28996.pdf.

109 A. Kamal, above note 4; H. Slim, above note 52.

110 African Rights, above note 5, p. 27. See also discussion in H. Slim, above note 5, p. 349.

111 Dorothea Hilhorst, “Classical Humanitarianism and Resilience Humanitarianism: Making Sense of Two Brands of Humanitarian Action”, International Journal of Humanitarian Action, Vol. 3, 2018.

112 Meaning the so-called triple nexus of relief, development and peace. See M. Bradley, above note 19, pp. 281 ff.

113 Katerina Rozakou, “Solidarity #Humanitarianism: The Blurred Boundaries of Humanitarianism in Greece”, Etnofoor, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2017; Hanne Haaland and Hege Wallevik, “Beyond Crisis Management? The Role of Citizen Initiatives for Global Solidarity in Humanitarian Aid: The Case of Lesvos’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 10, 2019. The terms “amateur humanitarianism” and “volunteer tourism” have also been used: see Jane Freedman, “Amateur Humanitarianism, Social Solidarity and ‘Volunteer Tourism’ in the EU Refugee ‘Crisis’”, in Ayesha Ahmad and James Smith (eds), Humanitarian Action and Ethics, Zed Books, London 2018; Elisa Sandri, “‘Volunteer Humanitarianism’: Volunteers and Humanitarian Aid in the Jungle Refugee Camp of Calais”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 44, No. 1, 2018.

114 Katerina Rozakou, “Solidarity”, in A. De Lauri (ed.), above note 16, pp. 198–199.

115 A. Claire, above note 81, p. 51; A. Décobert, above note 4; African Rights, above note 5, p. 27; S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 15.

116 L. Chouliaraki, above note 62, p. 264.

117 J. Labbé, above note 106, p. 19. See also Emma Mawdsley, “‘Non-DAC’ Humanitarian Actors”, in Roger Mac Ginty and Jenny H. Peterson (eds), The Routledge Companion to Humanitarian Action, Routledge, London and New York, 2015, p. 213.

118 A. Kamal and D. Benowitz, above note 82.

119 Noting discussion about the conceptualization of the local: Kristina Roepstorff, “A Call for Critical Reflection on the Localisation Agenda in Humanitarian Action”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2020.

120 T. Scott-Smith, above note 14, p. 18.

121 See also A. Kolers, above note 7.

122 A. Volpe, above note 61, p. 260.

123 R. Mac Ginty, above note 35, p. 54; A. Volpe, above note 61, p. 260; K. Bayertz, above note 31, p. 16.

124 K. Bayertz, above note 31, pp. 4, 17.

125 R. Mac Ginty, above note 35, pp. 54, 68, 70, 79, 137–138, 152.

126 On such narratives, see Andrew Thompson, “Humanitarian Principles Put to the Test: Challenges to Humanitarian Action during Decolonization”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016, pp. 75–76; M. Bradley, above note 43, p. 1036; H. Slim, above note 5, p. 350; D. Chandler, above note 5, p. 14; R. A. Wilson and R. D. Brown, above note 5, pp. 23–25. See also David P. Forsythe, “Contemporary Humanitarianism: The Global and the Local”, in R. A. Wilson and R. D. Brown (eds), above note 5, p. 59; Laura Suski, “Children, Suffering, and the Humanitarian Appeal”, in R. A. Wilson and R. D. Brown (eds), above note 5, p. 216.

127 Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmerman, above note 18, para. 2802.

128 H. Slim, above note 5, pp. 349–350.

129 See e.g. Marnie Lloydd, “Persistent Tensions? International Legal Perspectives on ‘Other’ Foreign Fighters”, German Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 60, 2017, pp. 563–564.

130 Sally J. Scholz, “Solidarity as a Human Right”, Archiv des Völkerrechts, Vol. 52, No. 1, 2014, p. 65.

131 See Anne Orford, “Moral Internationalism and the Responsibility to Protect”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2013, p. 104; Anne Orford, International Authority and the Responsibility to Protect, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011, p. 193.

132 Alexandre Afonso and Samir Negash, “Selective European Solidarity: How Recipient Country Characteristics Shape Support for International Redistribution in Europe”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 62, No. 2, 2023.

133 M. Lloydd, above note 129, p. 563.

134 See e.g. Moustafa Bayoumi, “They Are ‘Civilised’ and ‘Look Like Us’: The Racist Coverage of Ukraine”, The Guardian, 2 March 2022, available at: www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/mar/02/civilised-european-look-like-us-racist-coverage-ukraine; Eva Połońska-Kimunguyi, “War, Resistance and Refuge: Racism and Double Standards in Western Media Coverage of Ukraine”, LSE Blog, 10 May 2022, available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/medialse/2022/05/10/war-resistance-and-refuge-racism-and-double-standards-in-western-media-coverage-of-ukraine/;

135 See e.g. Philip S. S. Howard, Bryan Chan Yen Johnson and Kevin Ah-Sen, “Ukraine Refugee Crisis Exposes Racism and Contradictions in the Definition of Human”, The Conversation, 22 March 2022, available at: https://theconversation.com/ukraine-refugee-crisis-exposes-racism-and-contradictions-in-the-definition-of-human-179150.

136 D. Dijkzeul and M. Moke, above note 49, pp. 685–686.

137 Daniela Nascimento, “One Step Forward, Two Steps Back? Humanitarian Challenges and Dilemmas in Crisis Settings”, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, 18 February 2015. See also Joost Herman and Dennis Dijkzeul, “A Matter of Principles: Humanitarian Challenges”, The Broker, 9 February 2011, available at: www.thebrokeronline.eu/a-matter-of-principles/; L. Fast, above note 41, p. 97; M. Barnett, above note 46, p. 731; S. Gordon and A. Donini, above note 36, pp. 104–105.

138 S. J. Scholz, “Political Solidarity and Violent Resistance”, above note 12, p. 46.

139 See e.g. J. Edkins, above note 104, p. 256, discussing the perils of narratives around universal human solidarity. See also M. Bradley, above note 19, p. 11.

140 ICRC, above note 108.

141 J. Tanguy and F. Terry, above note 46, p. 34.

142 Nicole Sunday Grove, “Weapons of Mass Participation: Social Media, Violence Entrepreneurs, and the Politics of Crowdfunding for War”, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2017; Henry Tuck, Tanya Silverman and Candace Smalley, Shooting in the Right Direction: Anti-ISIS Foreign Fighters in Syria and Iraq, Institute for Strategic Dialogue, Horizons Series No. 1, London, 2016, pp. 37–39; T. Ataii, above note 92.

143 ICRC, “We Call on States to Stop Turning a Blind Eye to the Participation of Civilian Hackers in Armed Conflict”, ICRC statement given at the Open-Ended Working Group on Information and Communication Technology, New York, 13 December 2023, available at: www.icrc.org/en/statement-cyber-oewg-sixth-session.

144 N. S. Grove, above note 142, pp. 86, 89.

145 See ICRC, ICRC Strategy 2024–2027, Geneva, 2023, pp. 5–6.

146 See also, on broadening the actors considered to be part of the humanitarian sector but remaining within certain frameworks, the recommendations in Chas Morrison, Civilian Protection in Urban Sieges: Capacities and Practices of First Responders in Syria, IIED Working Paper, International Institute for Environment and Development, London, September 2017, p. 57.

147 See e.g. H. Slim, above note 52, p. 15; “Weapons as Aid”, above note 92.

148 Peter Carstens, “Estnische Regierungschefin erwartet von Deutschland ‘starke Führung’”, Frankfurter Allgemeine, 24 April 2022, available at: www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/ukraine-krieg-estland-erwartet-von-deutschland-starke-fuehrung-17982106.html.

149 U. von Pilar, above note 98.

150 T. Ataii, above note 92.

151 Hanna Miedviedieva, “Neutrality in the Humanitarian Response in Ukraine”, Voice Out Loud Magazine, Vol. 35, June 2023, pp. 15–16.

152 T. Ataii, above note 92.

153 See also H. Slim, above note 58, p. 68, discussing “partisan politics” compared to the “politics of humanity” (engaging with political power only for a humanitarian goal, not a specific political outcome).

154 See e.g. Ryniker, Anne, “The ICRC's Position on ‘Humanitarian Intervention’”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 83, No. 482, 2001Google Scholar. This article argues that the term “humanitarian” “should be reserved to describe action intended to alleviate the suffering of the victims”; for military intervention, it promotes instead the term “armed intervention in response to grave violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law”. See also S. Gordon and A. Donini, above note 36, p. 105.

155 Jenny H. Peterson, “Introduction”, in Roger Mac Ginty and Jenny H. Peterson (eds), The Routledge Companion to Humanitarian Action, Routledge, London and New York, 2015, p. 3.

156 H. Slim, above note 52, p. 18. See, likewise, S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 207, and K. Bayertz, above note 31, p. 18, on how, even outside of humanitarian contexts, seeking to do violence to another group violates the rubric of solidarity of any group claiming justice as an end.

157 Moses, Jeremy, “Why Humanitarianism Needs a Pacifist Ethos”, Global Society, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2020, pp. 80–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

158 Chimni, B. S., “Justification and Critique: Humanitarianism and Imperialism over Time”, in Brock, Lothar and Simon, Hendrik (eds), The Justification of War and International Order, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021, p. 485Google Scholar (citation omitted).

159 Ibid., p. 487 (citation omitted).

160 Ibid., p. 485 (citation omitted). See also M. Bradley, above note 19, p. 232.

161 J. Edkins, above note 104, p. 256.

162 H. Slim, above note 52, pp. 18–19; H. Slim, Solferino 21, above note 93, p. 127.

163 See e.g. A. Kamal and D. Benowitz, above note 82.

164 D. Li, above note 9.

165 A. Volpe, above note 61, p. 259.

166 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 10. See also L. Chouliaraki, above note 62, pp. 264–265, regarding “agonistic solidarity”. Regarding historical and cultural contingency, see K. Bayertz, above note 31, p. 26.

167 Dany, Charlotte, “Solidarity through Localization? Humanitarian Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic”, Perspective, Vol. 3, 2021Google Scholar.

168 See, similarly, ibid.

169 HERE-Geneva, above note 43, p. 29.

170 S. J. Scholz, above note 7, p. 13. See also K. Bayertz, above note 31, p. 20; J. Moses, above note 157, p. 82.

171 Walhof, Darren R., “Review: Political Solidarity by Sally J. Scholz”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2009, p. 653Google Scholar.