Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-pfhbr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-13T16:25:28.601Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The practice of the UN Security Council pertaining to the environment and armed conflict, 1945–2021

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 October 2023

Radhika Kapoor  and
Dustin A. Lewis
Radhika Kapoor*
Affiliation:
Program Fellow, Harvard Law School Program on International Law and Armed Conflict, Cambridge, MA, United States
Dustin A. Lewis*
Affiliation:
Research Director, Harvard Law School Program on International Law and Armed Conflict, Cambridge, MA, United States
*
*Email: rkapoor@law.harvard.edu
**Email: dlewis@law.harvard.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Contemporary ecological and climate crises have thrown into sharp relief debates around what roles and responsibilities, if any, international security bodies ought to have in addressing environment-related matters. Building on a wider catalogue of the United Nations Security Council's practice concerning the environment, in this article, we provide a snapshot of the Council's practice pertaining in particular to the environment and armed conflict. In addition to setting out key aspects relating to the personal, geographical and temporal scope of that practice, we identify four armed-conflict-related substantive themes arising in the Security Council's actions in this area: (1) relations between conflict and natural resources; (2) relations between conflict and adverse environment-related phenomena; (3) relations between conflict and chemical and biological weapons; and (4) adverse impacts of conflict on the environment. Through this examination, we aim in part to provide stakeholders with a more extensive and detailed basis on which to evaluate what actions the Council has taken – and, by inference, which actions it has not taken – with respect to the environment and armed conflict.

Keywords

Security CouncilUnited Nationsenvironmentclimate changearmed conflict
Type
Legal Intersections
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 105 , Issue 924: Protecting the Environment in Armed Conflict , December 2023 , pp. 1646 - 1667
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

†

The authors are grateful to Naz K. Modirzadeh for her assistance in conceptualizing this article.

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

References

1 See e.g. Homer-Dixon, Thomas F., “Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases”, International Security, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1994CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stalley, Phillip, “Environmental Scarcity and International Conflict”, Conflict Management and Peace Science, Vo. 20, No. 2, 2003, p. 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar (“Environmental scarcity is a security risk of considerable importance”). But see Theisen, Ole Magnus, “Blood and Soil? Resource Scarcity and Internal Armed Conflict Revisited”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 45, No. 6, 2008Google Scholar.

2 See e.g. Percival, Val and Homer-Dixon, Thomas, “Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of South Africa”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 35, 1998, pp. 286, 292–295CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 See e.g. Lukas Rüttinger et al., The Nature of Conflict and Peace: The Links between Environment, Security and Peace and Their Importance for the United Nations, WWF International and Adelphi Consult GmbH, 18 May 2022. See also Foreign Policy Analytics, “Environment, Fragility and Conflict”, Foreign Policy, 12 January 2022, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/12/environment-fragility-and-conflict/ (all internet references were accessed in September 2023).

4 L. Rüttinger et al., above note 3, p. 6.

5 Ibid. See also Buhaug, Halvard and Uexkull, Nina von, “Vicious Circles: Violence, Vulnerability, and Climate Change”, Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Vol. 46, No. 1, 2021CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Brzoska, Michael, “Climate Change as a Driver of Security Policy”, in Scheffran, Jürgen et al. (eds), Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, Springer, Berlin and Heidelberg, 2012, p. 165Google Scholar.

7 See e.g. Hans Günter Brauch and Jürgen Scheffran, “Introduction: Climate Change, Human Security, and Violent Conflict in the Anthropocene”, in J. Scheffran et al. (eds), above note 6, p. 6. See also United Nations, “Security Council Holds First-Ever Debate on Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hearing Over 50 Speakers”, 17 April 2007, available at: https://press.un.org/en/2007/sc9000.doc.htm.

8 United Nations, “Warning against ‘Gloom And Doom’ Scenarios, Under-Secretary-General Says International Community Has Tools to Combat Climate Change”, 1 August 2007, available at: https://press.un.org/en/2007/ga10609.doc.htm.

9 See e.g. Emyr Jones Parry, “The Greatest Threat to Global Security: Climate Change Is not Merely an Environmental Problem”, Green Our World!, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2007.

10 Charter of the United Nations, 1 UNTS XVI, 26 June 1945 (entered into force 24 October 1945) (UN Charter), Art. 24(1).

11 See UN Security Council, Summary Statement by the Secretary-General of Matters of which the Security Council Is Seized and of the Stage Reached in Their Consideration, UN Doc. S/2023/10/Add.26, 3 July 2023 (UNSG Statement); Security Council, “Thematic Items”, available at: www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/repertoire/thematic-items.

12 See e.g. UN Security Council, 8864th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.8864, 23 September 2021; UN Security Council, 8451st Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.8451, 25 January 2019.

13 See e.g. UN Security Council, 9345th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.9345, 13 June 2023.

14 See UN Security Council, 5663rd Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5663, 17 April 2007. See also UN Security Council, “Letter Dated 5 April 2007 from the Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council”, UN Doc. S/2007/186, 5 April 2007.

15 See e.g. UN Security Council, 4207th Meeting, UN doc. S/PV.4207, 13 October 2000; UNSC Res. 1314, 11 August 2000.

16 See above note 3.

17 UNSG Statement, above note 11.

18 UN Security Council, The UN Security Council and Climate Change: Tracking the Agenda after the 2021 Veto, Research Report, 30 December 2022.

19 See UN Security Council, 8926th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.8926, 13 December 2021. The draft resolution is contained in Security Council, Afghanistan, Albania, … Uruguay and Vanuatu: Draft Resolution, UN Doc. S/2021/990, 13 December 2021.

20 Recent efforts to collate, organize and make freely accessible at least some areas of Security Council practice and procedures include, among others, UN Security Council, The UN Security Council and Climate Change, Research Report, 21 June 2021, pp. 21–26; United Nations, Interactive Handbook of the Working Methods of the Security Council, available at: www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/interactive-handbook; Will Ossoff, Naz K. Modirzadeh and Dustin A. Lewis, Preparing for a Twenty-Four-Month Sprint: A Primer for Prospective and New Elected Members of the United Nations Security Council, Harvard Law School Program on International Law and Armed Conflict (HLS PILAC), December 2020, available at: https://pilac.law.harvard.edu/primer-for-elected-members.

21 UN Charter, above note 10, Art. 24(1).

22 Ibid., Art. 25.

23 For a selection of Security Council language concerning, in particular, climate change and natural resources, see e.g. UN Security Council, above note 20, pp. 21–26; Aldinger, Peter, Bruch, Carl and Yazykova, Sofia, “Revisiting Securitization: An Empirical Analysis of Environment and Natural Resource Provisions in United Nations Security Council Resolutions, 1946–2016”, in Swain, Ashok and Öjendal, Joakim (eds), Routledge Handbook of Environmental Conflict and Peacebuilding, 1st ed., Routledge, London, 2018Google Scholar.

24 Radhika Kapoor and Dustin A. Lewis, HLS PILAC Catalogue of Practice of the U.N. Security Council Concerning the Environment, 1945–2021, with an Accompanying Finding Aid, HLS PILAC, April 2023 (Catalogue and Finding Aid), available at: https://pilac.law.harvard.edu/unsc-practice-concerning-the-environment.

25 See the below section on “Material Scope”.

26 See e.g. UN Security Council, above note 18, p. 3; UN Security Council, 9345th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.9345, 13 June 2023.

27 UN Security Council, 5663rd Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5663, 17 April 2007, p. 18.

28 UN Security Council, above note 18, p. 3.

29 See e.g. Corinne Schoch, Rethinking Climate Change as a Security Threat, Sustainable Development Opinion Paper, International Institute for Environment and Development, October 2011, p. 2.

30 United Nations, above note 7.

31 Security Council, 8864th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.8864, 23 September 2021.

32 See e.g. UNSC Res. 21, 2 April 1947, Art. 6. See, further, Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24.

33 See, further, Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, pp. 5–6.

34 See e.g. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force 21 March 1994); Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration), 16 June 1972; Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Annex I: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I), 12 August 1992; Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Uses of Environmental Modification Techniques, 1108 UNTS 151 (entered into force 5 October 1978); Glossary of Environment Statistics, UN Doc. ST_ESA_STAT_SER.F_67, 1997; UN Environment Programme, From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment, 2009, available at: https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7867; Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide, Commentary and Core Text, June 2021; UN Environment Programme, Environmental and Social Sustainability Framework, 2020, p. 8, available at www.unep.org/resources/report/un-environments-environmental-social-and-economic-sustainability-framework; Convention on Biological Diversity, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993).

35 See e.g. Laos, Environmental Protection Law (Revised Version), 2013, Art. 2; Australia, Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999, Section 528; Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 2161 UNTS 447 (entered into force 30 October 2001).

36 See e.g. Brennan, Andrew and Lo, Norva Yeuk-Sze, Understanding Environmental Philosophy, 1st ed., Routledge, London, 2010CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marie-Louise Larsson, Legal Definitions of the Environment and of Environmental Damage, Scandinavian Studies in Law, Stockholm Institute for Scandinavian Law, 1999.

37 See e.g. Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, pp. 7–9.

38 Ibid., p. 9.

39 The following HLS PILAC research assistants contributed to the Catalogue: Aizhan Tilenbaeva, Ryen Bani-Hashemi, Nanami Hirata, Audrey MacKay, Ana Leticia Magini, Anum Mesiya, Shriya Nayyar and Juan Felipe Wills Romero. The following HLS PILAC research assistants contributed research support with respect to the Finding Aid: Sandy Alkoutami, Eoin Jackson, Jacqulyn Kantack, Ana Leticia Magini, Isa Rama, Zoe Shamis and Yen Ba Vu.

40 The Catalogue spans the period starting with the formation of the Council in late 1945 through to 31 December 2021.

41 See, further, Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, p. 10.

42 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2127, 5 December 2013, para. 16; UNSC Res. 810, 8 March 1993, para. 16.

43 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2190, 15 December 2014, para. 2; UNSC Res. 2188, 9 December 2014, Preamble.

44 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, para. 3; UNSC Res. 2611, 17 December 2021, Preamble.

45 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2325, 15 December 2016, para. 14; UNSC Res. 2298, 22 July 2016, para. 1. See also below notes 129–132 and corresponding text.

46 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2502, 19 December 2019, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2476, 25 June 2019, Preamble.

47 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2417, 24 May 2018, Preamble; UNSC Res. 571, 20 September 1985, Preamble.

48 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2113, 30 July 2013, para. 28; UNSC Res. 2100, 25 April 2013, para. 32.

49 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2119, 10 October 2013, Preamble.

50 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2231, 20 July 2015, JCPOA, Annex III: “Civil Nuclear Cooperation”, para. 13; UNSC Res. 1929, 9 June 2010, Annex IV.

51 See e.g. UNSC Res. 692, 20 May 1991, Preamble; UNSC Res. 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16.

52 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2360, 21 June 2017, para. 19.

53 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2510, 12 February 2020, Preamble.

54 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1637, 11 November 2005, Preamble; UNSC Res. 1546, 8 June 2004, preambular para. 3.

55 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/ 2011/3, 9 February 2011, pp. 1–2; UNSC Res. 1493, 28 July 2003, para. 28.

56 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, Preamble.

57 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1856, 22 December 2008, para. 21.

58 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1306, 5 July 2000, para. 13.

59 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1896, 7 December 2009, para. 14.

60 See e.g. UNSC Res. 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16.

61 United Nations, “Regional Groups of Member States”, UN Department for General Assembly and Conference Management, available at: www.un.org/dgacm/en/content/regional-groups.

62 See Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, pp. 78–83.

63 See ibid., pp. 78–81.

64 See ibid., pp. 81–82. The classification of Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq as part of the Asia-Pacific region is based on the UN's informal regional grouping: see above note 61 and associated main text.

65 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2045, 26 April 2012, para. 6; UNSC Res. 1893, 29 October 2009, para. 1.

66 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2559, 22 December 2020, Preamble.

67 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2518, 30 March 2020, Preamble.

68 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1483, 22 May 2003, para. 22.

69 See the main text in the Introduction at above notes 17–18.

70 See the definition of the term “environment” in the above section on “Sources and Methods”.

71 Among others: Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Arts 2, 3; Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forces at Sea of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Arts 2, 3; Geneva Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Arts 2, 3; Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Arts 2, 3; Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978), Art. 1; Protocol Additional (II) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 609, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978), Art. 1; International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Appeals Chamber), 2 October 1995, para. 70.

72 Throughout this article, any reference to the “environment” may be understood as encompassing any elements or systems of the environment that fall within the purview of the definition of “environment” developed for the purpose of the Catalogue. We relied on the Catalogue as the primary resource for Security Council practice referring to the environment. See the definition of the term “environment” in the above section on “Sources and Methods”.

73 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2018/18, 21 September 2018, p. 86; UNSC Res. 2333, 23 December 2016, Preamble.

74 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1493, 28 July 2003, para. 28.

75 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2003/27, 15 December 2003, pp. 11–12.

76 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, paras 5, 8; UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, Preamble.

77 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2429, 13 July 2018, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2363, 29 June 2017, Preamble.

78 See Peters, Anne, “Ch. V The Security Council: Functions and Powers: Article 24”, in Simma, Bruno et al. (eds), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012Google Scholar, para. 34.

79 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2079, 12 December 2012, para. 5(d).

80 See e.g. Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index 2023: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, March 2023, available at: www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/GTI-2023-web.pdf; Geneva Academy, “Non-International Armed Conflicts in Iraq”, RULAC, available at: www.rulac.org/browse/conflicts/non-international-armed-conflicts-in-iraq; Annyssa Bellal, The War Report: Armed Conflicts in 2018, Geneva Academy, April 2019; Dustin A. Lewis, Naz K. Modirzadeh and Jessica S. Burniske, CTED and IHL: Preliminary Considerations for States, HLS PILAC, March 2020, pp. 29–30.

81 See e.g. UNSC Res. 540, 31 October 1983, para. 5.

82 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2014, 21 October 2011, Preamble.

83 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2608, 3 December 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2554, 4 December 2020, Preamble.

84 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2007/22, 25 June 2007, p. 1.

85 The determinations made throughout this article purport only to provide a snapshot of Security Council practice concerning the environment and armed conflict; they do not purport to constitute legal assessments, including with respect to the existence (or not) of an armed conflict as defined in international law in a particular context.

86 On the Security Council's conflict-prevention responsibilities, see also UN Charter, above note 10, Arts 34, 36(1), 37(2), 1(1) (referring to “collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace”). See, further, e.g., UN Secretary-General, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping, UN Doc. S/24111, 17 June 1992, p. 203 (on identifying “at the earliest possible stage situations that could produce conflict” and addressing them using preventive diplomacy); Romita, Paul, The UN Security Council and Conflict Prevention: A Primer, International Peace Institute, 2011, p. 4Google Scholar.

87 We use the term “conflict-related linkages” here as a shorthand to encompass references in Security Council practice to elements or systems of the environment arising in connection with conflict.

88 See the below sections on “Relations between Armed Conflict and Natural Resources”, “Relations between Armed Conflict and Environment-Related Phenomena”, “Relations between Armed Conflict and Chemical or Biological Weapons” and “Adverse Impacts of Armed Conflict”.

89 Throughout this article, we use the term “illicit” in connection with exploitation of natural resources to refer to all forms of illegal, illegitimate, unauthorized, banned or otherwise condemned use or exploitation of or trade in natural resources, including smuggling of or trafficking in natural resources. See, further, Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, p. 25.

90 In its practice concerning the environment, the Security Council refers to or otherwise addresses a range of forms or factors pertaining to adverse environment-related phenomena, including climate change, floods, droughts, environmental degradation, ecological changes, desertification, land degradation, energy poverty or energy access, increasingly frequent and extreme weather phenomena, lack of rainfall, forest fires, erratic precipitation, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes, severe weather events and natural disasters, and locust upsurges or infestations – or a combination of such forms or factors. See e.g. UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2607, 15 November 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2605, 12 November 2021, Preamble. The term “environment-related phenomena” is employed both in this article as well as in the Catalogue and Finding Aid to encompass each of these forms or factors as well as any combination of them. See, further, Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, pp. 40–41.

91 With respect to the inclusion of “chemical weapons” within the scope of the term “environment”, see below notes 129–130; Catalogue and Finding Aid, above note 24, p. 10.

92 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2363, 29 June 2017, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2429, 13 July 2018, Preamble.

93 See above note 89.

94 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1625, 14 September 2005, Annex, para. 6; UN Doc. S/PRST/2007/22, 25 June 2007, p. 1.

95 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2605, 12 November 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2556, 18 December 2020, para. 14; UNSC Res. 2502, 19 December 2019, para. 14.

96 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2429, 13 July 2018, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2363, 29 June 2017, Preamble.

97 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2018/18, 21 September 2018, p. 86; UNSC Res. 2333, 23 December 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2308, 14 September 2016, Preamble.

98 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2444, 14 November 2018, para. 40; UNSC Res. 2385, 14 November 2017, para. 24.

99 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2608, 3 December 2021, Preamble; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/19, 20 October 2021, p. 4.

100 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2571, 16 April 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2605, 12 November 2021, Preamble; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/21, 28 October 2021, p. 2.

101 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2611, 17 December 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2557, 18 December 2020, Preamble.

102 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2457, 27 February 2019, Preamble; UN Doc. S/PRST/2015/3, 19 January 2015, p. 3; UNSC Res. 2127, 5 December 2013, preambular para. 16.

103 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1376, 9 November 2001, para. 8.

104 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1493, 28 July 2003, para. 28.

105 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1478, 6 May 2003, Preamble; UNSC Res. 1446, 4 December 2002, Preamble; UNSC Res. 1343, 7 March 2001, Preamble.

106 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1314, 11 August 2000, para. 8.

107 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1539, 22 April 2004, para. 3.

108 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1379, 20 November 2001, para. 6.

109 UNSC Res. 2582, 29 June 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2528, 25 June 2020, Preamble.

110 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1533, 12 March 2004, Preamble; UNSC Res. 1499, 13 August 2003, Preamble.

111 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2018/17, 10 August 2018, p. 4; UN Doc. S/PRST/2015/12, 11 June 2015, p. 5.

112 UNSC Res. 2607, 15 November 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2551, 12 November 2020, Preamble.

113 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2610, 17 December 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2482, 19 July 2019, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2322, 12 December 2016, Preamble.

114 UNSC Res. 2571, 16 April 2021, Preamble.

115 UNSC Res. 2255, 22 December 2015, para. 4; UNSC Res. 2210, 16 March 2015, para. 15.

116 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/19, 20 October 2021, p. 4; UNSC Res. 2399, 30 January 2018, para. 21(e); UNSC Res. 2262, 27 January 2016, para. 13(d).

117 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1343, 7 March 2001, Preamble.

118 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2467, 23 April 2019, Preamble.

119 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2003/27, 15 December 2003, pp. 11–12.

120 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1379, 20 November 2001, para. 13(c); UNSC Res. 1314, 11 August 2000, para. 16(c).

121 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/19, 20 October 2021, pp. 3–4.

122 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2198, 29 January 2015, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2188, 9 December 2014, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2128, 10 December 2013, Preamble.

123 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2007/22, 25 June 2007, p. 3.

124 See above note 90.

125 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2579, 3 June 2021, Preamble; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/3, 3 February 2021, p. 3; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/21, 28 October 2021, p. 7; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/16, 17 August 2021, p. 2.

126 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2011/15, 20 July 2011, p. 1.

127 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2423, 28 June 2018, para. 68.

128 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2242, 13 October 2015, Preamble.

129 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction, 1974 UNTS 45, 3 September 1992 (entered into force 29 April 1997), Arts II(1)(a), II(2). Exceptions include toxic chemicals and their precursors “intended for purposes not prohibited under this Convention, as long as the types and quantities are consistent with such purposes.”

130 See, further, Sierra, Miguel A. and Martínez-Álvarez, Roberto, “Ricin and Saxitoxin: Two Natural Products that Became Chemical Weapons”, Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 97, No. 7, 2020CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, 1015 UNTS 163, 16 December 1971 (entered into force 26 March 1975), Art. I(1).

132 See the definition of the term “environment” in the above section on “Sources and Methods”.

133 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2319, 17 November 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2314, 31 October 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, para. 1.

134 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2319, 17 November 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2314, 31 October 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, Preamble.

135 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2325, 15 December 2016, para. 14.

136 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2417, 24 May 2018, Preamble.

137 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/19, 20 October 2021, p. 3; UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, para. 16; UNSC Res. 2556, 18 December 2020, para. 16.

138 UNSC Res. 2238, 10 September 2015, para. 5; UNSC Res. 2213, 27 March 2015, para. 4.

139 See e.g. UNSC Res. 571, 20 September 1985, Preamble; UNSC Res. 475, 27 June 1980, Preamble.

140 See e.g. UNSC Res. 465, 1 March 1980, para. 8.

141 See e.g. UNSCR 692, 20 May 1991, Preamble; UNSCR 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16.

142 UN Doc. S/PRST/2020/6, 29 April 2020, p. 1; UNSC Res. 2417, 24 May 2018, para. 1.

143 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2325, 15 December 2016, para. 14; UNSC Res. 1925, 28 May 2010, para. 8; UNSC Res. 1643, 15 December 2005, para. 6.

144 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2101, 25 April 2013, para. 25; UNSC Res. 2005, 14 September 2011, para. 9; UNSC Res. 1941, 29 September 2010, para. 4.

145 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1493, 28 July 2003, para. 28; UNSC Res. 1417, 14 June 2002, para. 15.

146 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, para. 4; UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, para. 6.

147 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1341, 25, 22 February 2001, para. 24; UNSC Res. 1332, 14 December 2000, para. 16.

148 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1521, 22 December 2003, para. 14.

149 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2011/3, 9 February 2011, pp. 1–2.

150 UN Doc. S/PRST/2020/6, 29 April 2020, p. 1; UNSC Res. 2417, 24 May 2018, para. 1.

151 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2423, 28 June 2018, para. 68.

152 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2109, 11 July 2013, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2057, 5 July 2012, Preamble; UNSC Res. 1996, 8 July 2011, Preamble.

153 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/19, 20 October 2021, p. 4; UN Doc. S/PRST/2015/3, 19 January 2015, pp. 3–4; UN Doc. S/PRST/2011/4, 11 February 2011, p. 2.

154 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1460, 30 January 2003, para. 16(b).

155 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, para. 5.

156 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, para. 45; UNSC Res. 2605, 12 November 2021, para. 44.

157 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2512, 28 February 2020, para. 7.

158 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1493, 28 July 2003, para. 28; UNSC Res. 1417, 14 June 2002, preambular para. 15.

159 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1698, 31 July 2006, para. 6.

160 UNSC Res. 1698, 31 July 2006, para. 6.

161 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2079, 12 December 2012, para. 5(d); UNSC Res. 2025, 14 December 2011, para. 5(d).

162 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2007/22, 25 June 2007, p. 2.

163 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, para. 26.

164 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1306, 5 July 2000, para. 12.

165 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, Preamble.

166 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1896, 7 December 2009, para. 16.

167 See e.g. UNSC Res. 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16; UNSC Res. 692, 20 May 1991, Preamble.

168 See e.g. UN Doc. S/PRST/2020/5, 11 March 2020, p. 3; UN Doc. S/PRST/2021/10, 19 May 2021, p. 3.

169 See e.g. UNSC Res. 571, 20 September 1985, Preamble.

170 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2605, 12 November 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2552, 12 November 2020, Preamble.

171 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2153, 29 April 2014, para. 25.

172 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2463, 29 March 2019, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2348, 31 March 2017, Preamble.

173 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1521, 22 December 2003, para. 14.

174 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2531, 29 June 2020, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2480, 28 June 2019, Preamble.

175 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1306, 5 July 2000, para. 12.

176 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2607, 15 November 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2551, 12 November 2020, Preamble.

177 See e.g. UNSC Res. 571, 20 September 1985, Preamble.

178 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2521, 29 May 2020, para. 15; UNSC Res. 2514, 12 March 2020, Preamble.

179 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2524, 3 June 2020, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2579, 3 June 2021, Preamble.

180 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2611, 17 December 2021, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2557, 18 December 2020, Preamble.

181 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2299, 25 July 2016, Preamble; UNSC Res. 2233, 29 July 2015, Preamble; UNSC Res. 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16.

182 See e.g. UNSC Res. 687, 3 April 1991, para. 16; UNSC Res. 692, 20 May 1991, Preamble. As with Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq, the classification of Kuwait as part of the Asia-Pacific region is based on the UN's informal regional grouping: see above note 61 and associated main text.

183 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, para. 4; UNSC Res. 2209, 6 March 2015, para. 6.

184 See e.g. UNSC Res. 465, 1 March 1980, para. 8.

185 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2235, 7 August 2015, para. 5.

186 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1807, 31 March 2008, para. 18(d).

187 See e.g. UNSC Res. 1698, 31 July 2006, para. 6.