¹ The Economist, 10 05 1947, 6 01 1962, 10 08 1985.Google Scholar

² Hudson, Michael C., The Precarious Republic: Political Modernization in Lebanon (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 169.Google Scholar

³ Major studies on the SSNP include: al-Husri, Abu Khaldun Sati' (the Pan-Arabist theoretician), al-'Uruba bayn du'atiha wa mu'aridiha (Beirut: Dar al-'llm li'l-Malayin, 1952)Google Scholar and Difa' 'an al'uruba (Beirut: Dar al-'llm li'l-Malayin?, 1956);Google ScholarJunbalat, Kamal (leader of the Lebanese Druze), Adwa' 'ala haqiqat al-qadiyya al-qawmiyya al-ijtima'iyya al-Suriya (Beirut: n.p., nd.);Google ScholarMakdisi, Nadim K., “The Syrian National Party: A Case Study of the First Inroads of National Socialism in the Arab World,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, 1960;Google ScholarRobert, “The Syrian National Party,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1946;Google Scholar and Yamak, Labib Zuwiyya, The Syrian Social Nationalist Party: An Ideological Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969). In addition to these sources, I have relied standard scholarly works on Lebanese and Syrian history. In the interest of limiting footnotes, however, references are provided only for (1) direct quotes or (2) information that derives from little-known sources.Google Scholar

⁴ Khadduri, Majid, Political Trends in the Arab World (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970), p. 190.Google Scholar

⁵ Sa'ada, Antun, Mabadi' al-hizb al-qawmi al-ijtima'i wa ghaybatuhu (Beirut: n.p., 1972), passim.Google Scholar

⁶ German authors are especially prone to this error. See Vocke, Harald, Was geschah im Libanon? (Frankfurt: The Author, 1977), p. 45;Google ScholarFrankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 September 1986.Google Scholar

⁷ Decree signed by Khuri, Salim, 27 October 1947. Text in Qadiyat al-hizb al-qawmi (Beirut: Ministry of Information, 1949), p. 162.Google Scholar (Issued by the Lebanese government to justify the execution of Sa'ada, this important book is to be used with great caution.) For a literary account of the SSNP's fascist impress, see al-Shaykh, Hasan, Hikayat Zahra, trans. into English as The Story of Zahra (London: Reader's International, 1968), p. 36.Google Scholar

⁸ Antun Sa'ada, al-Ta'alim al-Suriya al-qawmiyya al-ijtima'iyya (n.p., 1960), pp. 31–32. Sa'ada combined the names of Syria and Iraq to come up with the name “al-Suraqiyya,” which he applied to this later, larger, Syria. See Junbalat, Adwa', p. 79.Google Scholar

⁹ Sa'ada, Mabadi', p. 11.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Undated text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 265.Google Scholar

¹¹ Antun Sa'ada, quoted in Le Liban face à l'Ouragan (n.p., n.d.), p. 37.Google Scholar

¹² I have surveyed the king's three decades of Pan-Syrian efforts in “'Abdallah's ‘Pure Joke' and the Greater Syria Plan,” Middle East Review, 20 (1987), 43–54.Google Scholar

¹³ Sa'ada, Antun, text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 158.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Rabbath, Edmond, Unité syrienne et devenir arabe (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1937), p. 33.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Sa'ada, Antun, text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 158.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Daghir, Yusuf As'ad, Masadir ad-dirasa al-adabiyya (Beirut: al-Maktaba al-Sharqiyya. 1972), vol. 3, part 1, p. 541. Thomas Philipp kindly directed me to this reference.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Sa'ada's father, for example, wrote an Arabic-English dictionary, Qamus Sa' ada al-tibbi (Cairo, 1911), among other books.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Philipp, Thomas, The Syrians in Egypt, 1725–1975 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1985), p. 114.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Sa'ada, Antun interview with Agence France Presse, 14 March 1947. Text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 167.Google Scholar

²⁰ “Taqrir 'Amid 'Abdallah Muhsin al-Muwajjah ila al-Za'ama,” 30 September 1947. Text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 204.Google Scholar

²¹ “Jalsa Munaffidhiyya Hums al-'Amma,” 2 September 1947. Text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 264. Despite the rivalry between these two Pan-Syrian aspirants, the SSNP did seek cooperation with the king at least twice. In July 1942, it approached him and indicated a willingness to accept him as ruler of Greater Syria, asking in return control of certain key ministries. 'Ahdallah showed no interest, however. In November 1947, the SSNP declared that it “does not object to the appointment of His Majesty as King of United Syria.” “Taqrir muwajjah li-'umdat al-dakhiliyya,” 28 November 1947. Text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, pp. 203–4.Google Scholar

²² Sa'ada, Antun, al-Islam fi risalatayh al-masihiyya wa'l-muhammadiyya, 3d ed. (Beirut: n.p. 1958), p. 216.Google Scholar

²³ Sa'ada, Mabadi', p. 32.Google Scholar

²⁴ Sa'ada, al-Islam fi risalatayh, p. 216.Google Scholar

²⁵ Quoted in Sharabi, Hisham, al-Jamr wa'l-ramad: dhikrayat muthaqqaf 'arabi (Beirut: Dar al-Tali'a li'l-Tiba'a wa'l-Nashr, 1978), p. 74.Google Scholar

²⁶ Quoted in Junbalat, Kamal, Adwa', p. 90.Google Scholar

²⁷ Text in Le Liban face à l'Ouragan, p. 3.Google Scholar

²⁸ Ministry of the Interior permit, dated 2 May 1944. Text in Qadiyyat al-hizb al-qawmi, p. 148.Google Scholar

²⁹ A1-Hayat, 8 October 1963. Text in Arab Political Documents 1963, p. 418.Google Scholar

³⁰ Quoted in Rondot, Pierre, “Quelques aperçus de la doctrine du P.P.S.,” Orient 40 (1966), 16.Google Scholar

³¹ 'Ata, Sadiq [pseud.], “al-Ahzab fi Lubnan wa'l-Jaysh,” al-'Amal [Cairo] 14 (1979), 174–80, provides abundant detail on cooperation with the PLO.Google Scholar

³² For example, Foreign Report, 19 March 1987.Google Scholar

³³ al-Ba'abakki, Muhammad, quoted in Rondot, “Quelques aperçus,” p. 20.Google Scholar

³⁴ al-Mahayiri, Isam, Fi'l 'urubat al-Suriya al-qawmiyya al-ijtima'iyya (Beirut: n.p. 1958), p. 9. The title of this collection of short pieces translates, revealingly, as “The Arabism of Syrian Social Nationalism.”Google Scholar

³⁵ A1-Tadamun, 24 August 1985.Google Scholar

³⁶ Muhanna, Tawfiq, SSNP Secretary for Radio and Information, Voice of the Mountain, 25 January 1987. This and other broadcast reports derive from the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report.Google Scholar

³⁷ 'Uthman, Hashim “Adonis wa'l-bidayat al-ula … shi'riyya wa'l-nathiriyya,” al-Mawqif al-adabi, 1 (1982), 156–58.Google Scholar

³⁸ Juha, Mustafa, Lubnan fi zilal al-ba'th: fusul fi'l-harb as-Suriya al-Lubnaniyya (n.p., n.d.), p. 26. Juha says that 'Aflaq and al-Bitar also suggested to Sa'ada that the SSNP be renamed the “Arab Social Nationalist Party.”Google Scholar

³⁹ al-Husri, Abu Khaldun Sati', al-'Uruba bayn du'atiha wa mu'aridiha, 4th ed. (Beirut: Dar al'llm li'l-Malayin, 1961), p. 70.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Farzat, Muhammad Harb, al-Hayaz al-hizbiyya fi Suriya bayn 1908–1955 (Damascus: Dar al- Rawwad, 1955), p. 141.Google Scholar

⁴¹ The Ba'th Party also had important branches in Iraq and other Arab countries, but our concern here is with Syria only; “the Ba'th Party” is shorthand for “the Ba'th Party of Syria.”Google Scholar

⁴² Van Dusen, Michael H., “Syria: Downfall of a Traditional Elite,” in Tachau, Frank, ed., Political Elites and Political Development in the Middle East (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1973), p. 141.Google Scholar

⁴³ Van Dusen, Michael H., “Intra- and Inter-Generational Conflict in the Syrian Army,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1971, pp. 176, 302.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Sa' ada, al-Islam fi risalatayh, passim.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Tibi, Bassam, Nationalismus in der Dritten Welt am arabischen Beispiel (Frankfurt: Europäische Verlaganstalt, 1971), p. 187.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ al-Husri, Abu Khaldun Sati', al-lqlimiyya: judhurha wa budhurha (Beirut: Dar al-'llm li'l Malayin, 1963), p. 167.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Quoted in al-Taqrir al-watha'iqi li-azmat al-hizb, p. 16.Google Scholar Quoted in ltamar Rabinovich, , Syria Under the Ba 'th 1963–1966: The Army-Party Symbiosis (Jerusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1972), p. 145.Google Scholar See also al-Hayat, 26 February 1966.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Quoted in Saint-Prot, Charles, Les Mystères syriens: la politique au Proche-Orient de 1970 à 1984 (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984), p. 77.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Quoted in Rouleau, Eric, “The Syrian Enigma: What is the Ba'th?” New Left Review, 45 (1967), 63.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Roberts, David, The Ba'th and the Creation of Modern Syria (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), p. 15.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Picard, Elizabeth, “L'évolution récente du Parti populaire syrien à la lumière des éditoriaux de Shawqi Khairallah dans ‘Al-Thawra’,” Maghreb-Machrek, 78 (10-12, 1977), 76.Google Scholar

⁵² For evidence of this change in policy, see the author's parallel articles: “Palestine for the Syrians?” Commentary, 82, 6 (12, 1986), 30–36,Google Scholar and “Damascus and the Claim to Lebanon,” Orbis, 31 (1987), 663–81.Google Scholar

⁵³ Chabry, Laurent and Chabry, Annie, Politique et minorités au Proche-Orient (Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose, 1984), pp. 166–67.Google Scholar I attempt to explain this transformation in “Syria's Imperial Dream,” The New Republic, 195, 23 (9 06 1986), 13–16.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Al-Tadamun, 24 August 1985.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Jerusalem, Radio, 24 July 1985.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Vocke, Was geschah im Libanon?, p. 45.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Al-Thawra, 17 August 1976.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Damascus, Radio, 20 September 1976.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Beirut, Radio, 2 August 1985.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Ya'ari, Ehud, “Behind the Terror,” The Atlantic, 259, 6 (06, 1987), 18–22. This may explain why Walid Kabbani, an SSNP member, was caught smuggling explosives into the United States from Canada in October 1987.Google Scholar

⁶¹ The statement by the previously unknown group that took responsibility for the explosion combines two usually incompatible ideals, fundamentalist Islam and Pan-Syrian nationalism. According to an Agence France Presse report of 23 October 1983, it read: “The movement declares its full support for the Greater Syria policy, which calls for the return of Palestine to the Palestinians and the liberation of Lebanon from imperialism and isolationism and strengthening the Islamic revolution throughout the Arab world.” This declaration hints at cooperation between the SSNP and Hezbollah against the Marines.Google Scholar

⁶² Israeli military spokesman, The New York Times, 3 August 1985, pp. 1, 3.Google Scholar

⁶³ Damascus Radio, 4 May 1985.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ya'ari “Behind the Terror.”Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Damascus Television, 10 July 1985.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Damascus Television, 10 April 1985.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Radio Damascus, 11 June 1986.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Sa'idi, Abdullah in an interview, MERIP Reports, 61 (1977), 17.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Roberts, The Ba'th, p. 15.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ya'ari, “Behind the Terror.”Google Scholar