Author's note: This article was originally presented at the 2013 Middle East Studies Association conference in New Orleans, Louisiana. I thank my copanelists for their valuable feedback. I also thank the four anonymous IJMES reviewers for their helpful comments as well as Kathleen A. Kelly, Akram Khater, and Jeffrey Culang for their detailed editorial suggestions.

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¹⁷ For estimates of lithographic print-runs, see Afshar, Sayr-i Kitab, 27; Afshar, “Kitabha-yi Chap-i Qadim dar Iran va Chap-i Kitabha-yi Farsi dar Jahan,” Hunar va Mardum 49 (1966): 29Google Scholar; Rajabi, Muhammad, Tarikh-i Kitab dar Iran: Az Aghaz ta Kunun (Tehran: Intisharat-i Ittilaʿat, 2009)Google Scholar, 35; and Shahri, Jaʿfar, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi-yi Tihran dar Qarn-i Sizdahum, vol. 4 (Tehran: Intisharat-i Ismaʿiliyan, 1989), 117Google Scholar.

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¹⁹ The population of Tehran rose from 106,482 in 1883 to 210,000 in 1922. For the growth of Tehran's population, see Zandjani, Habibollah, “Teheran et sa population: deux siecles d’histoire,” in Téhéran: capitale bicentenaire, ed. Adle, Chahryar and Hourcade, Bernard (Paris: Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, 1992), esp. 252–54Google Scholar; Firuz Tawfiq, “Census I. In Iran,” Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 2, 142–52, table 13, accessed 16 June 2014, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/census-i.

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²⁴ Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 53.

²⁵ Gulbun, “Danishmandan,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:491–92.

²⁶ Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 55; Ramazani, Muhsin, “Az Khandanha-yi Khadim-i Kitab,” in Tarikh-i Shafahi-yi Nashr-i Iran, ed. Azarang, ʿAbd al-Husayn and Dihbashi, ʿAli (Tehran: Intisharat-i Quqnus, 2003), 85–100Google ScholarPubMed.

²⁷ Ramazani, “Khandan,” 85; ʿAin Allah Jalali, “Chahar Nasl Nashir,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:229; Iqbal, Yadnama, 23–24. On the modernization of naming practices, see Chehabi, H. E., “The Reform of Iranian Nomenclature and Titulature in the Fifth Majles,” in Converging Zones: Persian Literary Tradition and the Writing of History, Studies in Honor of Amin Banani, ed. Ahmadi, Wali (Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Publishers, 2012), 84–116Google Scholar.

²⁸ Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 53.

²⁹ Ibid.; Iqbal, Yadnama, 20; Mahmud ʿIlmi and ʿAli Asghar ʿIlmi, “Du Nasl Az Miyan-i Panj,” in Azarang and Dihbashi, Tarikh, 129.

³⁰ Nafisi, Rivayat, 141; Iqbal, Yadnama, 14; Mir-Muhammadi, Hamid-Riza, Jughrafiya-yi Khvansar (Tehran: Khvansari, 1999), 156–59Google Scholar; Azarang, ʿAbd al-Husayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 7,” Bukhara 76 (2010): 518–19Google Scholar.

³¹ Iqbal, Yadnama, 15–19.

³² For the distribution of printed books by city in 19th-century Iran, see Mansoureh Ettehadieh Nezam-Mavi, “The Emergence of Tehran as the Cultural Centre of Iran,” in Adle and Hourcade, Téhéran, 138. According to Ettehadieh's data, Tehran's 1,883 printed books far exceeded production in other cities.

³³ Ramazani, “Khandan,” 86.

³⁴ Marzolph, Narrative Illustration, 25–26; Marzolph, Ulrich, “Persian Illustrated Lithographed Books,” in The Beginnings of Printing in the Near and Middle East: Jews, Christians and Muslims, ed. Kreiser, Klaus (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrossowitz Verlag, 2001), 84–101Google Scholar; Shahri, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 4:123.

³⁵ Marzolph, Ulrich, “Persian Popular Literature in the Qajar Period,” Asian Folklore Studies 60 (2001): 219, 223–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mahjub, Muhammad Jaʿfar, Adabiyat-i ʿAmiyana-yi Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Chishma, 2003), 113–19Google Scholar; Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:133–34.

³⁶ Shahri, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 4:124.

³⁷ Marzolph, “Persian Popular Literature,” 219.

³⁸ Sharhi, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 5:646–51.

³⁹ Ibid.

⁴⁰ Balaghi, Nationalism, 195–200.

⁴¹ Nabavi, “Readership,” 213; Browne, Press and Poetry, 25.

⁴² Naseruldin Parvin, “Kitabfurushi, Ruznamanigari, Ruznamafurushi,” in Kitabfurushi, 1:179–81.

⁴³ Balaghi describes shipments of newspapers hidden in crates of cloth and sugar being smuggled via networks of Iranian merchants in Iran and abroad. See Balaghi, Nationalism, 198.

⁴⁴ Parvin, “Ruznamanigari,” 180–81.

⁴⁵ Ibid., 180.

⁴⁶ Ibid.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 185–92.

⁴⁸ Ibid., 181–82; Strauss, “Who Read What,” 47.

⁴⁹ Parvin, Naseruldin, “Darbara-yi Karburd-i Zaban-i Muhavira dar Ruznamaha, va Muʿarifi-yi Ruznama-yi Sharafat,” Iranshinasi 8 (1996): 523Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 524.

⁵¹ Ibid., 523–24.

⁵² Ibid., 518–19.

⁵³ Perry, John, “New Persian: Expansion, Standardization, and Inclusivity,” in Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order, ed. Spooner, Brian and Hanaway, William L. (Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2012), 81–82Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Ibid., 82.

⁵⁵ Ibid., 82; Anderson, Imagined Communities, 18–19, 45.

⁵⁶ Browne, Edward G., A Literary History of Persia, vol. 4 (Bethesda, Md.: Iranbooks, 1997), 482Google Scholar; Rypka, Jan, History of Iranian Literature (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel, 1968), 362–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Parvin, “Darbara-yi Zaban,” 525.

⁵⁸ Ibid.

⁵⁹ Ibid.; For a comparison of newspaper prices during this period, see Nabavi, “Readership,” 218–19, 454; and Shahri, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 5:646.

⁶⁰ Shahri, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 4:130; Balaghi, Nationalism, 199; Afary, Revolution, 117.

⁶¹ Shahri, Tarikh-i Ijtimaʿi, 5:647–48; Balaghi, “Print Culture,” 168–70.

⁶² Balaghi, “Print Culture,” 168.

⁶³ For similar patterns elsewhere in the region, see Ayalon, Reading Palestine, 96–101; and Fortna, Learning to Read, 78.

⁶⁴ Kuhistani-Nizhad, Masʿud, Qiraʾat-khanaha-yi Iran (Tehran: Markaz-i Mutaliʿat va Tahqiqat, 2003), 13–26Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Jalali, “Chahar Nasl,” 230; Kuhistani-Nizhad, Qiraʾat-khanaha, 46.

⁶⁶ Browne, Press and Poetry, 26; Nabavi, “Readership,” 214.

⁶⁷ Kuhistani-Nizhad, Qiraʾat-khanaha, 67–71.

⁶⁸ See, for example, discussions in Afshar, Iraj, “Anjumanha-yi Adabi dar Iran,” Ayanda 12 (1987): 376–83Google Scholar; and Ashtiyani, Abbas Iqbal, “Kitabkhanaha-yi ʿUmumi-yi Tehran,” Yadigar 1, no. 7 (1945): 1–5Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Afshar, “Anjumanha,” 381.

⁷⁰ Ibid. The terms kānūn (assembly), anjuman (society), and pātugh (haunt) added to the complexity of terms referring to sites of social gathering where books were made available for purchase, reading, and/or discussion. See also ʿAli Muhammad Hunar, “Kitabfurushiha-yi Patughi,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:689–90.

⁷¹ Nadir Mutallabi-Kashani, “Kitabfurushan-i Tehran Dar Sal-i 1306,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:603–7.

⁷² Ibid., 605.

⁷³ Ibid.

⁷⁴ Ibid., 606.

⁷⁵ Ibid.

⁷⁶ Ibid. On this practice, see also Nafisi, Rivayat, 147.

⁷⁷ Martin Seger, “Segregation of Retail Facilities and the Bipolar City Centre of Tehran,” in Adle and Hourcade, Téhéran, 287.

⁷⁸ The 1939 data comes from Fatima Qaziha, “Asnadi az Kitabfurushan dar Sazman-i Asnad va Kitabkhana-yi Milli-yi Iran,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:421–79. The 1935 data comes from “Salnama va Ihsaʾiyya: 1312–1313 va 1313–1314,” Dawlat-i Shahanshahi-yi Iran: Vizarat-i Maʿarif (Tehran: Idara-i Kull-i Intibaʿat, 1935), 122–25. I am grateful to Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi for providing me with this source. See also Mansur Safat-Gul, “Ihsaʾiyya-yi Kitabkhanaha va Kitabfurushiha-yi Iran dar Khurdad-i Sal-i 1314,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 2:225–29.

⁷⁹ “Salnama va Ihsaʾiyya,” 122–24; Safat-Gul, “Ihsaʾiyya-yi Kitabkhanaha,” 225–29.

⁸⁰ Qaziha, “Asnadi az Kitabfurushan,” 456–58.

⁸¹ Ibid.

⁸² Ibid.

⁸³ For a discussion of movie houses in this context see Naficy, Hamid, A Social History of Iranian Cinema, vol. 1, The Artisanal Era, 1897–1941 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011), 128–32Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 394–95. For the urban reform of Tehran during the Reza Shah period, see Mohsen Habibi, “Reza Chah el le Development de Tehehran (1925–1941),” in Adle and Hourcade, Téhéran, 199–206; and Ehlers, Eckart and Floor, Willem, “Urban Change in Iran, 1920–1941,” Iranian Studies 26 (1993): 251–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁶ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 154.

⁸⁷ Azarang, ʿAbd al-Husayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 10,” Bukhara 82 (2011): 443–44Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Bizhan Taraqqi, “Az Khandan-i Nashir,” in Azarang, Tarikh, 51–63. See also Taraqqi, Az Pusht-i Divarha-yi Khatira (Tehran: Javidan, 2007).

⁸⁹ Taraqqi, “Khandan,” 51.

⁹⁰ Ibid., 52.

⁹¹ Ramazani, “Khandan,” 85–99.

⁹² Ibid., 88–89.

⁹³ Ibid., 85–86.

⁹⁴ Mahmud and ʿAli Asghar ʿIlmi, “Du Nasl,” in Azarang and Dihbashi, Tarikh, 129–51.

⁹⁵ Ibid., 130–35.

⁹⁶ Ibid.; Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 54.

⁹⁷ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:153–55.

⁹⁸ Iqbal, Yadnama, 12–13.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 45, 100–103.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 103–6; Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:395.

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¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 58; Katayun Mazdapur, “Kitabfurushi Miyan-i Zartushtiyan,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 2:97–98; Iraj Afshar, “Parakandaha dar bara-yi Kitabfurushi,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 2:592–93.

¹⁰⁸ Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 55; Taraqqi, “Khandan,” 55–56.

¹⁰⁹ Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 55; Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:411; Hunar, “Kitabfurushiha,” 693–94.

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¹¹³ Babazada, Tarikh-i Chap, 28–30; Mahbubi-Ardakani, Muʾassisat, 1:217; Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:425; Azarang, ʿAbdulhusayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 10,” Bukhara 82 (2011): 440–43Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ On the complexities of the transition to typography, see Brinkley Messick, “On the Question of Lithography,” in Roper, The History of the Book, 299–317.

¹¹⁵ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:154–55.

¹¹⁶ Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), 142Google Scholar; Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 2Google Scholar.

¹¹⁷ Firoozi, Ferydoon, “Tehran: A Demographic and Economic Analysis,” Middle Eastern Studies 10 (1974): 60–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zandjani, “Teheran et sa Population,” 252–54.

¹¹⁸ Azarang, ʿAbdulhusayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 10,” Bukhara 82 (2011): 438–39Google Scholar.

¹¹⁹ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:277–79; Hunar, “Kitabfurushiha,” 689; Sayyid ʿAbd Allah Anvar, “Nukhust Barkhurdam ba Kitabfurushi,” in Afshar, Kitabfurushi, 1:118–19.

¹²⁰ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:402–3; Iqbal, Yadnama, 61–66.

¹²¹ Enrollment figures are derived from Menashri, David, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), 102, 110, 191Google Scholar; Szyliowicz, Joseph S., Education and Modernization in the Middle East (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973), 389–90, 466Google Scholar; Matthee, Rudi, “Transforming Dangerous Nomads into Useful Artisans, Technicians, Agriculturalists: Education in the Reza Shah Period,” Iranian Studies 26 (1993): 318CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Azarang, ʿAbd al-Husayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 14,” Bukhara 86 (2012): 239Google Scholar.

¹²² Ibid., 64, 106–8.

¹²³ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:278–79.

¹²⁴ Ibid., 279.

¹²⁵ Taraqqi, “Khandan,” 55.

¹²⁶ Ibid., 56–57.

¹²⁷ Ibid.; Injavi-Shirazi, “Hadis-i Kitab,” 56.

¹²⁸ Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:413, 537–40.

¹²⁹ Taraqqi, “Khandan,” 57; Mushar, Khanbaba, Fihrist-i Kitabha-yi Chapi-yi Farsi, ed. Yar-Shater, Ehsan (Tehran: Anjuman-i Kitab, 1973), 1:1296–305Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Shalfurush, Husayn Zahidi, Farhang-i Khayyam: Farsi-Ingilisi, ed. Taraqqi, Muhammad ʿAli (Tehran: Kitabkhana-yi Khayyam, 1944 [1928])Google Scholar, preface. There was also a 1938 edition.

¹³¹ Mushar, Fihrist, 2:2416–26.

¹³² The emergence of Sadiq Hidayat as a literary figure is perhaps the best example of this. For a discussion of Hidayat's publishing history, see Jaʿfari, Dar Justiju, 1:459–68.

¹³³ Berkes, Niyazi, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1998), 26Google Scholar.

¹³⁴ Geoffrey Roper, “The Printing Press and Change in the Arab World,” in Baron, Agent of Change, 263.

¹³⁵ Ibid.

¹³⁶ Vivek Bhandari, “Print and the Emergence of Multiple Publics in Nineteenth-Century Punjab,” in Baron, Agent of Change, 285.

¹³⁷ Azarang, ʿAbd al-Husayn, “Tarikh-i Nashr-i Kitab dar Iran, 22,” Bukhara 97 (2013): 71–78Google Scholar.