AA Auswäritige Amt (1867–1920). Microfilmed records of the German Foreign Ministry: reposited in the National Archives, Washington, D.C. Cited: AA, T-1026 (series), R-25 (reel), 680 (frame). Note: many frame numbers have been omitted. For guides, of. American Historical Association Committee for the Study of War Documents, A Catalogue of Files and Microfilms of the German Foreign Ministry, 1867–1920 (Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association, 1959) pp. 372–400, 604–712; and Wolfe, Robert, ed., Captured German and Related Records (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1974), passim.Google Scholar AP Pribram, Alfred F., The Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary, 1879–1914, Coolidge, A. C., ed. (2 vols.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1920).Google ScholarBD British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, Gooch, O. P. and Temperley, Harold, eds. (11 vols.; London: H.M.S.O., 1927–1957).Google ScholarDD Documents Diplomatique: Le Accords Franco-Italiens, 1900–1902, Ministere des Affaires Etrangers, ed. (Paris: Imperimerie Nationale, 1920).Google ScholarDDF Documents Diplomatiques Francais, 1871–1914, Ministere des Aifaires Etrangers, ed. 3 ser. (41 vols.; Paris: Imperimerie Nationale, 1929–1957).Google ScholarDDI Documents Diplomatici Italiani, Ministero degli Affari Esteri, ed. 9 ser. (45 vols.; Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1956–1965).Google Scholar Note: Volumes for 1911–1912 (ser. 4) have not appeared in print. GP Die Grosse Politik der Europäischen Kabinette, 1871–1914, Lepsius, J., Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, A., and Thimme, F., eds. (40 vols.; Berlin: Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1922–1927).Google ScholarOe-U Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der bosniches Krise 1908 bis zum Kriegausbruch 1914, Bittner, L., Pribram, A. E., Srbik, H., and Uebersberger, H., eds. (9 vols.: Vienna: Osterreicher Bundesverlag, 1930).Google Scholar

¹ For specific studies of the Triple Alliance and the Turco-Italian War, of. Kalbskopf, Willy, Die Aussenpolitik der Mittlemachte im Tripoliskrieg und die letzte Dreibunderneuerung, 1911–1912 (Erlangen: Karl Dores, 1932), passim;Google Scholar and Dietrich, Richard, Die Tripolis-Krise 1911/12 und die Erneuerung des Dreibundes 1912 (Wurzburg: Konrad Triltsch, 1933), passim.Google Scholar

² Cf. these studies: Grothe, Huge, Deutschland, die Turkei und der Islam (Leipzig: G. Hirzel, 1914), passim;Google Scholar and Helfferich, Karl, Die Deutsch Turkenpolitik (Berlin: Dossische Verlag, 1921), passim.Google Scholar Cf. also: Adamov, Evgenii Aleksandrovich et al. , eds., Die Europäischen Mächte und die Türkei während des Weltkrieges: Konstantinopel und die Meerengen (4 vols.; Dresden: Carl Reissner, 1930–1932), I, 16–73.Google Scholar

³ For Weltpolitik. cf Hillgruber, Andreas, “Zwischen Hegemonie und Weltpolitik: Der Problem der Kontinuität von Bismarck bis Bethmann Hollweg,” in Das Kaiserliche Deutschland: Politik und Gesellschaft, 1870–1918, ed. Stürmer, Michael (Dusseldorf:Droste Verlag, 1970), pp. 187–204;Google Scholar and Fischer, Fritz, Der Krieg der Illusionen (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1966), passim.Google Scholar

⁴ For the diplomatic careers of Marschall and Kiderlen-Wächter, cf Carlson, Andrew, German Foreign Policy, 1890–1914, and Colonial Policy to 1914 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1970), pp. 65–133;Google ScholarCecil, Lamar, The German Diplomatic Service, 1871–1914 (Princeton: University Press, 1976), passim;Google Scholar and Lindow, Erich, Freiherr Marschall von Bieberstein als Botschaften in Konstantinople, 1897–1912 (Danzig: Kasemann, 1934), passim.Google Scholar

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⁶ On this quest, cf. Italy, Camera dei Deputati, Sessione (1909–1912), Relazione della Giunta Generale del Bilancio sul Disegno di Legge (Rome: Ministero della Colonie, 1912), pp. 8 ff;Google ScholarMiege, Jean Louis, L'Imperialisme Colonial Italien de 1870 a' nos jours (Paris: Societe d'Editio d'en seignement Superieur, 1968), pp. 47–85;Google ScholarLemmonon, Ernst, La Politique Coloniale de l'Italie (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1919), pp. 23–30;Google ScholarSighele, Scipio, l I Nazionalismo e i Partiti Politici (Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1911), pp. 81–87:Google ScholarSegre, Claudio G., Fourth Shore: The Italian Colonization of Libya (Chicago: University Press, 1974), pp. 4–32;Google Scholar and Cundolo, Ronald S., “Libya, Italian Nationalism, and the Revolt against Giolitti,” Journal of Modern History, 37 (06, 1965), 186–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar On similar aspects cf. Nava, Santi, I I Problema dell'Expansione Italiana ed il Levanto Islamico (Pauda: Cedam, 1931), pp. 47–50;Google ScholarMondaini, Gennaro, Manuale di Storia e Legislazione Coloniale del Regno d'ltalia (2 vols.; Rome: Attilio Sampaolesi, 1927), I, 275;Google ScholarSalis, Renzo Sertoli, Storia e Politica Coloniale Italiana (Milan: Editrice Giuseppe Principato, 1936), p. 146;Google ScholarAncel, Jacques, Manuel Historique de la Question d'Orient (Paris: Delagrave, 1923), pp. 236–238;Google ScholarDauzet, Albert, L'Expansion Italienne (Paris: Charpentier, 1914), pp. 71 f;Google ScholarSalis, Renzo Seryoli, Italia, Europa, Arabia (Milan: Istituto Politica Internazionale, 1940), p. 72;Google ScholarCastellini, Gualtiero, Tunisi e Tripoli (Turin: Fratelli Bocca, 1911), pp. 69–79, 155–224;Google Scholar and Evans-Pritchard, E. E., The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), pp. 98–103.Google Scholar Cf. also Corradini, Enrico, L'Óra di Tripoli (Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1911), pp. 5–47, 67–83;Google ScholarGiuseppe, Piazza, La Nostra Terra Promessa (Rome: Ausonia, 1911), passim;Google ScholarPiazza, Giuseppe, La Nostra Paca Coloniale (Rome: Ausonia, 1917), p. 63;Google ScholarMantegrazze, Vico, Tripoli e I Dritti della Civilta (Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1912), pp. 7–11;Google Scholarde Vecchi, Paolo, Italy's Civilizing Mission in Africa (New York: Brentano's, 1912), p. 14;Google ScholarSalis, Renzo Sertoli, La Giustizia Indigena (Paudua:Cedam, 1933), pp. 84 f;Google Scholar and Foerster, Robert, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1919), p. 496.Google Scholar This nationalism was even expressed musically, cf. Amoroso, Francesco, Tutti a Tripoli: Marcia Militaire (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1914), p. 17.Google Scholar Cf. also Pinon, Rene, “L'Europe et la Guerre Italo-Turque,” Revue des deux mondes, 9, ser. 6, (06, 1912), 601–604;Google ScholarAskew, William C., Europe and Italy's Acquisition of Libya (Durham: Duke University Press, 1942), pp. 47–58;Google Scholar and Maltese, Paolo, La Terra Promessa (Milan: Sugar Editore, 1968), pp. 7–100.Google Scholar

⁷ Cf. Wolf, John B., “The Diplomatic History of the Bagdad Railroad,” in University of Missouri Studies, 111 (04, 1936), pp. 8 f., 11;Google Scholar and Ramsaur, Ernst Edmondson Jr, The Young Turks: Prelude to the Revolution of 1908 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1957), p. 140.Google Scholar Cf. also Davison, Roderic H., Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton: University Press, 1963), pp. 311–408;Google ScholarKisakürek, Necip Fazil, Ulu Hakan II. Abdül-Hamīd Han (Istanbul: Ercan, 1965), pp. 146–264;Google ScholarMarder, Arthur Jacob, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow (5 vols.; London: Oxford University Press, 1961), Vol. I,Google ScholarThe Road to War, 1904–1914, pp. 301–303;Google Scholar and Teske, Hermann, Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz (Gottingen: Musterschmidt Verlag, 1957), pp. 37–48.Google Scholar

⁸ GP, 27, 557–689.Google Scholar Cf. Wolf, pp. 14, 17, 28, 30, 85, 100;Google ScholarAnderson, M. S., The Eastern Question, 1774–1923 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1966), pp. 261–286;CrossRefGoogle ScholarNichols, J. Alden, Germany after Bismarck: The Caprivi Era, 1890–1894 (New York: Norton, 1958), p. 275; and Hallgarten, II, 84, 142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ Cf. Wolf, pp. 16–25, 32, 45;Google Scholar and Nichols 51, 359. Cf. also Cecil, Lamar, Albert Ballin: Business and Politics in Imperial Germany, 1888–1918 (Princeton: University Press, 1967), pp. 116, 125;CrossRefGoogle ScholarJackh, Ernst, The Rising Cresent (New York: Farrar, 1944), p. 104;Google Scholar and Balfour, Michael, The Kaiser and His Times (New York: Norton, 1972), p. 201.Google Scholar

¹⁰ GP, XXV, 557 f., 600–608, Cf. Ramsaur, pp. 144–147;Google Scholar and Wolf, pp. 52–56, 61–63.Google Scholar Cf. also Ahmad, Feroz, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), pp. 56 f, 80;Google ScholarGoltz, Colmar, Denkwurdigkeiten (Berlin: E. S. Mittler, 1932), pp. 284, 340 f.;Google ScholarKutay, Cemal, Prens Sabahattin Bey. Sultan II. Abdūlhamit, Ittihad ve Terakkt, (Istanbul: Unan, 1964), pp. 142 f;Google ScholarKuran, Ahmed Bedevi, Inkilap Tarihimiz ve Ittihad ve Terakkt (Istanbul: Murat Kerrnan, 1948), pp. 178–195;Google ScholarMantegazza, Vico, La Turchia liberate e le Questioni Balcaniche (Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1908), pp. 106–110;Google ScholarLanger, Alliances, pp. 59–250, 323–458;Google Scholar and Goltz, Colmar, Ein Ausflug nach Macedonien (Berlin: Decker Verlag, 1894).Google Scholar In 1907–08, Marschall served as the chief German delegate to the second Hague Peace Conference. Cf. Chickering, Roger, Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892–1914 (Princeton: University Press, 1975), pp. 229 f.Google Scholar

¹¹ Cf. Wolf, pp. 9–11, 19 f., 65 f.;Google ScholarRamsaur, pp. 140–143;Google Scholar and Howard, Harry N., The Partition of Turkey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1931), p. 48.Google Scholar

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¹³ Cf. Lewis, Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (2d ed.; London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 210 ff;Google Scholar and Anderson, pp. 261–286.Google Scholar

¹⁴ AA, T-1026, R-10, 340: AA, T-1026, R-17, 792–795; AA, T-136, R-44; AA, T-139, R-392, 500 f.; GP, 30, 3, 7, 11–13, 17 f., 25, 498, 500, 503; and Oc-U, II/III, 945/360.Google Scholar Cf. Salomone, William, Italy in the Giolittian Era (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945), pp. 86–101;Google ScholarLapworth, Charles, Tripoli and Young Italy (London: Stephen Swift, 1912), pp. 196–201;Google ScholarSir Barclay, Thomas, The Turco-Italian War and Its Problems (London: Constable, 1912), p. 63;Google ScholarCachia, Anthony Joseph, Libya under the Second Ottoman Occupation, 1835–1911 (Tripoli: Government Press, 1945), pp. 56 f.;Google ScholarHallgarten, II, 102;Google ScholarAhmad, p. 92;Google Scholar and Bernet, pp. 239–253.Google Scholar

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¹⁶ GP, XXX, 175, 508 f, 519; and Oe-U, III, 443 f. Cf. Andre, Gianlucca, L'Italia e il Mediterraneo alla Vigilia della Prima Guerra Mondiale (Milan: Giuffre, 1967), pp. 15–20:Google ScholarBolen, C. Waldron, “Kiderlen's Policy in Anglo-German Naval Conventions, 1909–1912,” Journal of Central European Affairs, 9 (07, 1949), 148;Google ScholarHubatsch, Walter, Die Ara Tirpitz (Gottingen: Musterschmidt Verlag, 1955), pp. 78 f., 85;Google ScholarGreat Britain, Morocco, , Translation of the Statement Made by the Secretary of State of the German Foreign Office (London: H.M.S.O., 1911), pp. 5–11;Google ScholarHallgarten, II, 209;Google ScholarCecil, Service, p. 315;Google ScholarFischer, Fritz, The War of Illusion, trans. Jackson, M. (New York: Norton, 1975), pp. 71, 94, 112 f., 139;Google Scholar and Cecil, Ballin, p. 179.Google Scholar

¹⁷ GP, XXX, 519; Oe-U, III, 591; and AP, I, 225, 233, 241. Cf. Skendi, Stavro, The Albanian National Awakening, 1897–1912 (Princeton: University Press, 1967), pp. 257–286;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Askew, William C., “The Austro-Italian Antagonism, 1896–1914,” in Power, Public Opinion and Diplomacy, Walker, L. P. and Askew, W. C., eds. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1954), pp. 172–221.Google Scholar

¹⁸ BD, IX, 265; Oe-U, III, 293, 309, 332; DDF, 2, XIV, 241. Cf. Rodd, James Rennell, Social and Diplomatic Memories, 1902–1919 (London: Edward Arnold, 1925), p. 146;Google Scholar and Askew, pp. 61 f.Google Scholar Bethmann Hollweg, who warned the Italians not to interfere with Ottoman matters, expected a short, decisive Italian victory. Cf. Jarausch, Konrad H., The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethrnann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), pp. 131 f.;Google Scholar and Fischer, Illusion, p. 270.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Cf. Anderson, p. 287;Google Scholar and Taylor, pp. 463, 472–474.Google Scholar Kiderlen-Wächter's career was approaching some precarious times. Bethmann Hollweg wanted him to fight Admiral Tirpitz and the navy appropriations, even though he favored Weltmacht. In addition, after 1898, the Kaiser and Kiderlen-Wächter became enemies. Cf. Cecil, Service, pp. 310 f.;Google Scholar and Smith, Alson J., A View of the Spree (New York: John Day, 1952), pp. 233–235.Google Scholar

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²² BD, IX, 279 f. Cf. von Jagow, Gottlieb, Ursachen und Ausbruch des Weltkrieges (Berlin: Reimar Hobbing, 1919), pp. 39–55;Google ScholarAskew, pp. 62 f.;Google Scholar and Cecil, Service, pp. 315 f.Google Scholar

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²⁷ AA, T-139, R-458; AA, T-139, R-459; GP, XXX, 112–115, 133, 172 f., 179. Cf. Thaden, Edward C., “Charykov and Russian Foreign Policy at Constantinople in 1911,” Journal of Central European Affairs, 16 (04, 1956), 30;Google ScholarAhmad, p. 96;Google ScholarFischer, Illusion, pp. 265, 298–309;Google Scholar and Giolitti, Quarant'anni, p. 63.Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ AA, T-139, R-458; GP. XXX, 309–312, 315, 318 f., 320–322, 330, 356, 358; Oe-U, IV, 10; DDF, 3, II, 94 f., 10 and BD, IX, 369, 384.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ AA, T-139, R-458; GP, XXX, 334–337, 385; Oe-U, IV, 121 f.; and DDF, 3, II, 374. Cf. Askew, p. 174, pp. 184–186;Google ScholarThaden, Russia, 122 f.;Google Scholar and Hallgarten, II, 331 f.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ AA, T-139, R-458; and GP, XXX, 336 f.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Cf. Fischer, Illusion, 142 f.;Google Scholar and Thaden, Russia, p. 123.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Oe-U, III, 755, 760 f., 775; and GP, XXX, 536, 350–353, 593.Google Scholar

⁵² GP, XXX, 365, 541, 549–553, 593; Oe-U, III/IV, 799 f./53, 94–96. Cf. Italy, Corpo di Stato Maggiore, The Italo-Turkish War, trans. Tittoni, Renato (Kansas City: Franklin Hudson, 1914), pp. 62–67;Google ScholarVolonakis, Michael, The Island of Roses and Her Eleven Sisters (London: Macmillan, 1922), pp. 323 ff.;Google ScholarSalmi, Arrigo, “La Guerra Libica e il Dodecanneso,” Politica, 6 (03/05, 1924), 193–214/19–45;Google ScholarSperonis, Stephen Louis, “The Dodecanese Islands: A Study of European Diplomacy, Italian Imperialism and Greek Nationalism, 1911–1947,” (unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1956), pp. 51–111;Google ScholarGaibi, pp. 320–325;Google Scholar and Fischer, Illusion, pp. 145 f.Google Scholar

⁵³ AA, T-139, R-458; AA, T-139, R-392, 515–517; GP. XXX, 429; and Oe-U, IV, 216.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ BD, IX, 396, 412. Cf. Volonakis, p. 326.Google Scholar In London, Marschall replaced Count Metternich, who did not support the naval expansion of Admiral Tirpitz. Wilhelm von Stumm, the original choice, was regarded as too young; therefore, Marschall, who demanded a transfer since 1909, was appointed. Cf. Lindow, p. 194;Google Scholar and Cecil, Service, p. 188.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ GP, XXX, 347 f., 554 f., 561–563; Oe-U, IV, 159 f., 169, 259; and AP, 1, 240–243.Google Scholar Cf. Dietrich, p. 84;Google ScholarCecil, Service, pp. 310–314;Google ScholarPoincare, Vol. II, Les Balkans au Feu, 1912, pp. 10–12;Google ScholarKalbskopf, p. 107;Google Scholar and Helmreich, pp. 125 ff.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ AA, T-139, R-458; GP. XXX, 419, 433–441; and BD, IX, 416, 418 f. Cf. Albertini, I, 358 f. The Ottoman negotiation committee consisted of President Said Halim Pasha (Ottoman Assembly), General Schukri Midhat (Committee of Union and Progress), Ahmed Nissim Eifendi (Smyrna), and Karassar Effendi (Salonika); while the Italian committee consisted of Guido Fusinato (politican), Giuseppe Volpi (banker), and Signore Garbasso (diplomat). Cf. GP. XXX, 435. For the Treaty of London and the Straits issue of 1871, cf. Jelavich, Barbara, The Ottoman Empire, the Great Powers, and the Straits Question, 1870–1887 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), pp. 25–84.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ AA, T-139, R-458; AA, T-139, R-459; GP. XXX, 451–458; and Oe-U, IV, 374. Cf. Helmreich, pp. 96 f.;Google ScholarAskew, pp. 235 ff.;Google ScholarLewis, pp. 222–224;Google Scholar and Albertini, I, 358 f.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ GP, XXX, 460, 487; Oe-U, IV, 433, 585; and BD, IX, 424, 428, 433, 438–442. Cf. Beehler, pp. 111–117;Google ScholarAhmad, p. 113;Google Scholar and Helmreich, pp. 125 ff.Google Scholar The Sanusi continued to resist the Italians until 1932, while the Italians remained in the Dodecanese Isles until 1946–47!! Cf. Evans-Pritchard, pp. 104–190;Google Scholar and Speronis, pp. 155–235.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ AA, T-1026, R-10, 426–430; GP, XXX, 508; AP, I, 244–258. Cf. Taylor, pp. 459, 508–511;Google ScholarThaden, Russia, pp. 125 f.;Google ScholarFischer, Illusion, pp. 146–229;Google ScholarFischer, Illusionen, pp. 226–241, 324–367, 481–515;Google Scholar and Hallgarten, II, 332–354.Google Scholar Cf. also Renzi, William A., “Italy's Neutrality and Entrance into the Great War: A Re-Examination,” American Historical Review, 73 (06, 1968), 1414–1432;CrossRefGoogle ScholarTrumpener, Ulrich, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918 (Princeton: University Press, 1968), pp. 21–139;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Hanotaux, Gabriel, La Guerre des Balkans et l'Europe, 1912–1913 (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1914), pp. 1–44.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ AA, T-139, R-457/458. Cf. Hillgruber, p. 200;Google ScholarRitter, Gerhard, Das Problem des Militarismus in Deutschland (Bonn: Schimmelbusch, 1954), p. 26;Google ScholarTaylor, pp. 471–74;Google ScholarFischer Illusion, passim; and Howard, pp. 83–180.Google Scholar In World War I, Tripolitania still possessed much significance in German diplomacy. Both Italy and Austria-Hungary required joint German-Ottoman promises that Axis agents in Tripolitania were only recruiting the Sanusi tribes to fight the British in Egypt, and not against the Italians in Tripolitania. Cf. Fischer, Fritz, Germany's Aims in the First World War, trans. Joll, James (New York: Norton, 1967), p. 129;Google Scholar and Trumpener, pp. 37, 114–121.Google Scholar