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EMOLUMENTS, INSTITUTIONS, AND THE FAILURE OF BUREAUCRATIC REFORM IN THE YUAN DYNASTY

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2018

Yiming Ha
Yiming Ha*
Affiliation:
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology E-mail yha@connect.ust.hk
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Abstract

Beginning in 1260, the Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan embarked on the creation of a Chinese-style bureaucracy to govern his realm more effectively. At the same time, the court began to promulgate a salary code for its officials. Though both processes were led in large part by Chinese scholar-officials, this group continually complained about the shortcomings of the salary code and its negative effects on the bureaucracy. By studying their writings on salaries and official government records, this article will demonstrate that the Chinese literati used their complaints about the salary code to level criticisms against flaws in the administration and to push for bureaucratic reform, and that the Yuan court was genuinely concerned about the salary problem and took measures to alleviate it. Yet the court never actually reformed, and this article will ultimately aim to show how the response to the issue of salaries reflected the Mongols’ desires to cling to the power and privilege that was afforded to them by a bureaucratic structure which preserved much of their traditional steppe institutions and values.

Keywords

Emolumentscorruptionbureaucratic reformYuan dynastypolitical institutionstribal valuessinicizationChinese literati
Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 15 , Issue 2 , July 2018 , pp. 153 - 193
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

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References

REFERENCES

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Huang and Chen 2005 Huang, Huixian 黄惠贤 and Chen, Feng 陈锋. Zhongguo fenglu zhidu shi 中国俸禄制度史. Wuhan: Wuhan Daxue Chubanshe, 2005.Google Scholar
Hucker 1985 Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Langlois 1981 Langlois, John D. Jr. “Political Thought in Chin-hua under Mongol Rule.” In China under Mongol Rule, ed. Langlois, John D. Jr., pp. 137–85. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Li 2004 Li, Zhi'an 李治安. “Lun Yuandai de guanli tanzang” 论元代的官吏贪赃. Nankai xuebao 南开学报 5 (2004), pp. 32–41.Google Scholar
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Lo 1987 Lo, Winston W. An Introduction to the Civil Service of Sung China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Meng 2006 Meng, Siming 蒙思明. Yuandai shehui jieji zhidu 元代社会阶级制度. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 2006.Google Scholar
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Peng 1958 Peng, Xinwei 彭信威. Zhongguo huobi shi 中國貨幣史. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1958.Google Scholar
Peng 1994 Peng, Xinwei. A Monetary History of China, trans. Kaplan, Edward H.. Bellingham, WA: Western Washington University, 1994.Google Scholar
Qiu 2005 Qiu, Guangming. A Concise History of Ancient Chinese Weights and Measures, trans. Yanming, Zhang. Hefei: Heifei Gongye Daxue Chubanshe, 2005.Google Scholar
Rossabi 1994 Rossabi, Morris. “The Reign of Khubilai Khan.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, eds. Franke, Herbert and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 414–89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Rossabi 1988 Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Saeki 1964a Saeki, Tomi 佐伯 富. “Sōdai no kōshisen ni tsuite – chihō zaisei no kenkyu – jo” 宋代の公使銭について- 地方財政の研究 - 上. Toyō gakuhō 東洋學報 47:1 (1964), pp. 1–31.Google Scholar
Saeki 1964b Saeki, Tomi 佐伯 富. “Sōdai no kōshisen ni tsuite – chihō zaisei no kenkyu – ge” 宋代の公使銭について- 地方財政の研究 – 下. Toyō gakuhō 東洋學報 47:2 (1964), pp. 205–28.Google Scholar
Schurmann 1967 Schurmann, Herbert Franz. Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty: Translations of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yüan shih. Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies XVI. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.Google Scholar
Shen 1989 Shen, Renguo 沈仁國. “Yuandai de fenglu zhidu” 元代的俸祿制度. Yuanshi ji beifang minzu shi yanjiu jikan 元史及北方民族史研究集刊 12:13 (1989), pp. 37–69.Google Scholar
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Xu 1987 Xu, Fan 许凡. Yuandai li zhi yan jiu 元代吏制研究. Beijing: Laodong Renshi Chubanshe, 1987.Google Scholar
Yao 2011 Yao, Dali 姚大力. Meng Yuan zhidu yu zhengzhi wenhua 蒙元制度与政治文化 (“Political Institutions and Culture in Yuan China”). Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, 2011.Google Scholar
MSJZWang, Shidian 王士點 and Qiweng, Shang 商企翁 comps. Mishu jian zhi 秘書監志. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Guji Chubanshe, 1992.Google Scholar
NTBYLiu, Mengchen 劉孟琛, et al. , comps. Nantai beiyao 南臺備要. In Yuandai shiliao congkan 元代史料叢刊, ed. Shiyi, Huang 黃時鎰. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Guji Chubanshe, 2002.Google Scholar
QYWLi, Xiusheng 李修生 comp. Quan Yuan wen 全元文, 60 vols. Nanjing: Jiangsu Guji Chubanshe, 1999.Google Scholar
SLGJChen, Yuanjing 陳元靚. Shi lin guang ji 事林廣記. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1963.Google Scholar
TZTGTongzhi tiaoge jiao zhu 通制條格校注, annotated and punctuated by Linggui, Fang 方齢貴. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2001.Google Scholar
YDZ 2011 Yuan dian zhang 元典章, annotated and punctuated by Gaohua, Chen 陳高華 et al. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju; Tianjin: Tianjin Guji Chubanshe, 2011.Google Scholar
YDZ 2016 Yuan dian zhang 元典章, annotated and punctuated by Jinfu, Hong 洪金富. Taibei: Zhongyanyuan Shiyusuo, 2016.Google Scholar
YuanshiSong, Lian 宋濂, et al. , comps. Yuanshi 元史. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1976.Google Scholar
Allsen 2001 Allsen, Thomas T. “Sharing out the Empire: Apportioned Land under the Mongols.” In Nomads in the Sedentary World, eds. Khazanov, Anatoly M. and Wink, André. Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001, pp. 172–90.Google Scholar
Allsen 1987 Allsen, Thomas T. Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Ch'en 1979 Ch'en, Paul Heng-chao. Chinese Legal Tradition under the Mongols: The Code of 1291 as Reconstructed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Chen et al. 2004 Chen, Gaohua 陳高華, Zhang, Fan 張帆, and Liu, Xiao 劉曉. “Yuan dian zhang – Hubu – Lu bing jiao shi” 《元典章 – 戶部 – 祿癛》校釋. In Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan lishi yanjiusuo xuekan 3 中國社會科學院歷史研究所學刊 3, ed. Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan lishi yanjiusuo xuekan weiyuanhui 中國社會科學院歷史研究所學刊委員會. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 2004, pp. 329–67.Google Scholar
Chen and Shi 2000 Chen, Gaohua 陈高华 and Shi, Weimin 史卫民. Zhongguo jingji tongshi, 7, Yuandai jingji juan 中国经济通史, 7, 元代经济卷. Beijing: Jingji Ribao Chubanshe, 2000.Google Scholar
Chen and Shi 1996 Chen, Gaohua 陈高华 and Shi, Weimin 史卫民. Zhongguo zhengzhi zhidu tongshi, 8, Yuandai 中国政治制度通史, 8, 元代. Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1996.Google Scholar
Dardess 2003 Dardess, John W. “Did the Mongols Matter? Territory, Power, and the Intelligentsia in China from the Northern Song to the Early Ming.” In The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History, eds. Smith, Paul Jakov and von Glahn, Richard, pp. 111–34. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Dardess 1973 Dardess, John W. Conquerors and Confucians: Aspects of Political Change in Late Yüan China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Di Cosmo 1999 Di Cosmo, Nicola. “State Formation and Periodization in Inner Asian History.” Journal of World History 10:1 (1999), pp. 1–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Endicott-West 1994 Endicott-West, Elizabeth. “The Yüan Government and Society.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, eds. Franke, Herbert and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 586–615. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Endicott-West 1989 Endicott-West, Elizabeth. Mongolian Rule in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Farquhar 1990 Farquhar, David M. The Government of China under Mongolian Rule. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1990.Google Scholar
Farquhar 1981 Farquhar, David M. “Structure and Function in the Yüan Imperial Government.” In China under Mongol Rule, ed. Langlois, John D. Jr., pp. 25–55. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Franke and Twitchett 1994 Franke, Herbert, and Twitchett, Denis. “Introduction.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, eds. Franke, Herbert and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 1–42. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Golas 2015 Golas, Peter J. “The Sung Fiscal Administration.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 5, Sung China, 960–160, Part 2, eds. Chaffee, John W. and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 139–213. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Guan 1948 Guan, Weilan 官蔚藍. “Yuandai zhi bo feng tanwu yu wangguo” 元代之薄俸貪污與亡國. Xin Zhonghua 新中華 6:3 (1948), pp. 27–32.Google Scholar
Han 1986 Han, Rulin 韩儒林. Yuanchao shi 元朝史. Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1986.Google Scholar
Hartwell 1971 Hartwell, Robert M. “Financial Expertise, Examinations, and the Formulation of Economic Policy in Northern Sung China.” The Journal of Asian Studies 30:2 (1971), pp. 281–314.Google Scholar
Hong 2014 Hong, Lizhu 洪麗珠. Yuandai de xianji guanfu yu guanyuan 元代的縣級官府與官員. Gudai lishi wenhua yanjiu jikan shiyi bian 12 古代歷史文化研究輯刊十一編 12. Taibei: Hua Mulan Chubanshe, 2014.Google Scholar
Hsiao 1994 Hsiao, Ch'i-Ch'ing. “Mid-Yüan Politics.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, eds. Franke, Herbert and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 490–560. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Huang and Chen 2005 Huang, Huixian 黄惠贤 and Chen, Feng 陈锋. Zhongguo fenglu zhidu shi 中国俸禄制度史. Wuhan: Wuhan Daxue Chubanshe, 2005.Google Scholar
Hucker 1985 Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Langlois 1981 Langlois, John D. Jr. “Political Thought in Chin-hua under Mongol Rule.” In China under Mongol Rule, ed. Langlois, John D. Jr., pp. 137–85. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Li 2004 Li, Zhi'an 李治安. “Lun Yuandai de guanli tanzang” 论元代的官吏贪赃. Nankai xuebao 南开学报 5 (2004), pp. 32–41.Google Scholar
Li 2000 Li, Zhi'an 李治安. Xingsheng zhidu yanjiu 行省制度研究. Tianjin: Nankai Daxue Chubanshe, 2000.Google Scholar
Liu 2015 Liu, William Guanglin. “The Making of a Fiscal State in Song China, 960–1279.” Economic History Review 68:1 (2015), pp. 48–78.Google Scholar
Lo 1987 Lo, Winston W. An Introduction to the Civil Service of Sung China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Meng 2006 Meng, Siming 蒙思明. Yuandai shehui jieji zhidu 元代社会阶级制度. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 2006.Google Scholar
Miyazawa 2012 Miyazawa, Tomoyuki 宮沢 知之. “Genchō no zaisei to shō” 元朝の財政と鈔. Bukkyō daigaku rekishi gakubu ronshū 佛教大学歴史学部論集 2 (2012), pp. 43–64.Google Scholar
Mote 2000 Mote, F.W. Imperial China, 900–1800. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Niwa 1967 Niwa, Tomosaburō 丹羽 友三郎. “Gendai ni okeru kanri hōroku ni tsuite” 元代における官吏の俸禄について. Nagoya shōka daigaku ronshū 名古屋商科大学論集 11 (1967), pp. 145–60.Google Scholar
Ōshima 1994 Ōshima, Ritsuko 大島 立子. “Yuanchao guanliao fenglu kao” 元朝官僚俸祿考. In Zhuhe Yang Zhijiu bashi shouchen Zhongguoshi lunji 祝賀楊志玖教授八十壽辰中國史論集, ed. Nankai daxue lishixi Zhongguoshi lunji bianji zu 南開大學歷史系《中國史論集》編輯組, pp. 269–86. Tianjin: Tianjian Guji Chubanshe, 1994.Google Scholar
Pan 2003 Pan, Shaoping 潘少平. “Yuanchao fenglu zhidu yanjiu” 元朝俸祿制度研究. Ph.D. dissertation. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2003.Google Scholar
Peng 1958 Peng, Xinwei 彭信威. Zhongguo huobi shi 中國貨幣史. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1958.Google Scholar
Peng 1994 Peng, Xinwei. A Monetary History of China, trans. Kaplan, Edward H.. Bellingham, WA: Western Washington University, 1994.Google Scholar
Qiu 2005 Qiu, Guangming. A Concise History of Ancient Chinese Weights and Measures, trans. Yanming, Zhang. Hefei: Heifei Gongye Daxue Chubanshe, 2005.Google Scholar
Rossabi 1994 Rossabi, Morris. “The Reign of Khubilai Khan.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, eds. Franke, Herbert and Twitchett, Denis, pp. 414–89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Rossabi 1988 Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Saeki 1964a Saeki, Tomi 佐伯 富. “Sōdai no kōshisen ni tsuite – chihō zaisei no kenkyu – jo” 宋代の公使銭について- 地方財政の研究 - 上. Toyō gakuhō 東洋學報 47:1 (1964), pp. 1–31.Google Scholar
Saeki 1964b Saeki, Tomi 佐伯 富. “Sōdai no kōshisen ni tsuite – chihō zaisei no kenkyu – ge” 宋代の公使銭について- 地方財政の研究 – 下. Toyō gakuhō 東洋學報 47:2 (1964), pp. 205–28.Google Scholar
Schurmann 1967 Schurmann, Herbert Franz. Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty: Translations of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yüan shih. Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies XVI. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.Google Scholar
Shen 1989 Shen, Renguo 沈仁國. “Yuandai de fenglu zhidu” 元代的俸祿制度. Yuanshi ji beifang minzu shi yanjiu jikan 元史及北方民族史研究集刊 12:13 (1989), pp. 37–69.Google Scholar
Wang 1992 Wang, Mingsun 王明蓀. Yuandai de shiren yu zhengzhi 元代的士人與政治. Taibei: Taiwan Xuesheng Shuju, 1992.Google Scholar
Xu 1987 Xu, Fan 许凡. Yuandai li zhi yan jiu 元代吏制研究. Beijing: Laodong Renshi Chubanshe, 1987.Google Scholar
Yao 2011 Yao, Dali 姚大力. Meng Yuan zhidu yu zhengzhi wenhua 蒙元制度与政治文化 (“Political Institutions and Culture in Yuan China”). Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, 2011.Google Scholar