Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-x5cpj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-25T14:15:37.494Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Rejuvenating the Commonwealth—The Human Rights Remedy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2008

Extract

Lord Casey's sad testament to an organisation which was perceived as “on the way to becoming not much more than a paper connection” is hardly encouraging to someone intent on studying the institution. It would appear that the Commonwealth of Nations as a contemporary discussion point is even less fashionable today than it was 30 years ago. It has recently been written that in our generation those few individuals with an opinion about the Commonwealth view it as an “anachronistic organization whose retirement to the pages of history is long overdue”. The situation of an Australian attempting to write about the Commonwealth is confused by the need to distinguish it from the “Commonwealth of Australia” by such adjectives as the “British” Commonwealth or the “Commonwealth of Nations”.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Casey, R. G.. The Future of the Commonwealth (1963). p.27.Google Scholar

2. Idem. p. 10.

3. Saravanamutto, N.. “Are We Building a Commonwealth for Tomorrow?” (1995) The Round Table 433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4. The “British” Commonwealth was considered too Anglo-centric, and the “of Nations” was dropped as redundant; W. Dale, “Is the Commonwealth an International Organisation?” (1982) 31 1.CL.Q. 451.

5. This view is espoused by Ingram, D.. The Imperfect Commonwealth (1977), p.iiGoogle Scholar, Groom, A. J. and Taylor, P. (Eds). The Commonwealth in the 1980s: Challenges and Opportunities (1984). pp.34CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Judd, D. and Slinn, P.. The Evolution of the Modern Commonwealth (1982). Part 7. pp.118143.Google Scholar

6. The Commonwealth Declaration of Principles (1971). para.l. in Background Documents—Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (1981).

7. The Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p.30.Google Scholar

8. Address by Prime Minister Major at the Opening Ceremony of the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Harare. 16 Oct. 1991.

9. Chongwe, R.. “The Commonwealth and the New World Order—Safeguarding Civil Society” (1992) African J.Int. and Comp.L. 962, 971.Google Scholar

10. The Auckland Communiqué (1995). para.10.

11. Chalker, L.. “Development and Democracy: What Should the Commonwealth be Doing?” (1994) The Round Table 23, 24.Google Scholar

12. This figure is quoted in the Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p. 108.Google Scholar

13. Schermers, H. and Blokker, N.. International Institutional Law (1990). p.23.Google Scholar These three requirements were adopted by Muller, A.. International Organizations and Their Host States (1995). p.4.Google Scholar

14. Muller. idem. p.106.

15. Dale, . op. cit. supra n.4, at p. 473.Google Scholar

16. Chan, S., “The Commonwealth as an International Organization”, in Alner, J. (Ed.), Twelve Years of Commonwealth Diplomatic History, Commonwealth Summit Meetings 1979–1991 (1992), p.3.Google Scholar See also McIntyre, W. D.. The Significance of the Commonwealth, 1965–90 (1991). p.4.Google Scholar

17. Schermers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n.13, at p.45.Google Scholar

18. Idem. pp. 36–37.

19. Idem. p. 36.

20. Idem. p. 38.

21. Morgenstern, F.. Legal Problems of International Organizations (1986). p.46.Google Scholar

22. Archer, C.. International Organizations (2nd edn. 1992). p.45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23. Schermers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n.13. at p.43.Google Scholar

24. Dale, . op. cit. supra n.4. at p. 465.Google Scholar

25. Groom, A. J.. “The Commonwealth as an International Organization”, in Groom and Taylor, op. cit. supra n.5. at p.294.Google Scholar

26. Morgenstern, , op. cit. supra n.21, at p. 93.Google Scholar

27. See “Governance Matrix” in Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p. 135.Google Scholar

28. See Commonwealth Foundation. “Second Commonwealth NGO Forum—Paths out of Poverty: The Role of NGOs” (1995) where it was reported that 150 people representing NGOs participated in the Forum.

29. Morgenstern, , op. cit. supra n.21, at p.96.Google Scholar

30. Schermers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n.13. at p. 863.Google Scholar

31. See “B. Supervision by or on Behalf of the Organization”, idem, pp. 870–889.

32. Landy, E.. The Effectiveness of International Supervision—Thirty Years of I.L.O. Experience (1966). p. 151.Google Scholar

33. See Commonwealth Secretariat. Rights—The Commonwealth Approach to Human Dignity (1995). p.1. The mandate of the Human Rights Unit is to “(a) promote human rights within the Commonwealth: it being understood that the functions of the Unit will not involve any investigative or enforcement role”.Google Scholar

34. Kirgis, F.. International Organizations in Their Legal Setting (2nd edn. 1993). p.524.Google Scholar

35. Schermers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n.13. at p.921.Google Scholar

36. Bull, H.. “"What is the Commonwealth?” (1959) 11 World Politics 577, 579.Google Scholar

37. Papadopoulos, A. N.. Multi-Lateral Diplomacy Within the Commonwealth—A Decade of Expansion (1982). p. 10.Google Scholar

38. Not all members of the British Empire joined. E.g. when Burma became a republic in Jan. 1948 it left the Commonwealth: see Papadopoulos. idem. p.36.

39. Apparently the Prime Minister of Japan told the Queen in 1954 that Japan wished to join the Commonwealth, but this was not pursued. See Miller, J. D.. Survey of Commonwealth Affairs—Problems of Expansion and Attrition 19531969 (1974). pp. 392393. cited in Papadopoulos. idem. p.7.Google Scholar

40. “Welcome to Mozambique” (1996) Commonwealth Currents 4.

41. Ibid.

42. The Auckland Communiqué (1995). para.47.

43. J. Collinge. “Criteria for Commonwealth Membership” (1996) The Round Table 279. 284. The present draft of the report has been sent to member governments for their comments.

44. Letter dated 2 Feb. 1996 to the Commonwealth Secretary-General from Gidean Kajinamura. Ambassador of Rwanda to the UK, referred to in R. Sanders. “The Commonwealth Must Not Wake Up Feeling Terrible” (1996) The Round Table 287.292.

45. This is evident from Secretary-General Anyaoku's comment in the Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1991). p.15. that all existing members were consulted in advance when Namibia requested to join the Commonwealth on gaining independence in 1990.Google Scholar

46. Transcript of News Conference with Prime Minister Hawke at Harare. 15 Oct. 1991, p.5.Google Scholar

47. The Limassol Communiqué (1993). para.43. The Cameroon was admitted to the Commonwealth on 1 Nov. 1995.

48. The Auckland Communiqué (1995). para.10.

49. Collinge, J.. op. cit. supra n.43. at p. 285.Google Scholar

50. “Britain and the Future Roles of the Commonwealth” (editorial) (1995) The Round Table iii. v. This point was also made by Nigeria's Foreign Minister. Chief Tomi Ikimi. in his press conference at Auckland where he stated with reference to the Harare Declaration that “we were sure that few Commonwealth countries would get a clean bill”. The text of the speech is reproduced in (1996) The Round Table 131.132.

51. Ramphal, S. S.. “Shadows and Realities—The Imperatives of Independence”. The Sir Robert Menzies Lecture (1983).Google Scholar

52. The Limassol Communiqué (1993). para.26.

53. Ball, M. M.. The “Open” Commonwealth (1971). p.32.Google Scholar

54. Doxey, M. P.. The Commonwealth Secretarial and the Contemporary Commonwealth (1989). p. 10.Google Scholar

55. Maltby, R. and Quartermaine, P. (Eds). The Commonwealth—A Common Culture? (1989). p. 14.Google Scholar

56. Dale, W.. The Modern Commonwealth (1983). p.54.Google Scholar

57. Papadopoulos, . op. cit. supra n.37. at p. 18.Google Scholar

58. The Agreed Memorandum on the Commonwealth Secretariat (1965). para.4. The full text of the Memorandum is reproduced in Papadopoulos. idem. pp.141–149 (App.A).

59. Annual Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1966). p.4.Google Scholar

60. The Agreed Memorandum on the Commonwealth Secretariat (1965). para.12.Google Scholar

61. Idem. para.6.

62. Idem. paras.9–30.

63. Idem. para.32.

64. Idem. paras. 12–13.

65. Idem. para. 12.

66. Dale, . op. cit. supra n.56, at p.55 (emph. added).Google Scholar

67. Groom, and Taylor, , op. cit. supra n.5. at p.5.Google Scholar

68. Gender was not included in the 1971 Declaration. Cf. the Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1991). para.4.

69. The Declaration of Commonwealth Principles (1971). para.7.Google Scholar

70. Idem. para.8.

71. Papadopoulos, . op. cit. supra n.37. at p. 15.Google Scholar

72. The Commonwealth Statement on Apartheid in Sport—The Gleneagles Agreement (1977) and The Lusaka Declaration of the Commonwealth on Racism and Racial Prejudice (1979). in Background Documents, supra n.6. The Nassau Declaration on World Order (1985). in The Commonwealth at the Summit—Communiqués of the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings 1944–1980 (1987).

73. Dale, . op. cit. supra n.56. at p.55. includes the Lusaka Declaration as one of the three main instruments of the association. However, his reason for its inclusion lies in its recognition of the Commonwealth as an international organisation rather than the specific principles it espouses.Google Scholar

74. Chief Anyaoku. “Human Rights and the Commonwealth”. Address at the Launch of the Graduate School of International Relations. University of Kent, at the London School of Economics and Political Science. 9 May 1996.

75. Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1991). annexed to the Harare Communiqué (1991).para.l.

76. Idem. para.9.

77. Ibid.

78. Ibid.

79. Idem. para. 10.

80. The Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme on the Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1995).

81. Idem. s.l(B).

82. Vasak, K.. “The Distinguishing Criteria of Institutions”, in Vasak, K. (Ed.). The International Dimensions of Human Rights (1982). Vol.1, p.216.Google Scholar

83. Idem. p.217.

84. Idem. p.218.

85. See supra nn.26–35 and accompanying discussion.

86. The five supporting organisations of the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative are the Commonwealth Journalists Association, the Commonwealth Lawyers Association, the Commonwealth Legal Education Association, the Commonwealth Medical Association and the Commonwealth Trade Union Council.

87. See Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p.96.Google Scholar

88. See idem. p. 134 for a diagram of the Secretariat's structure.

89. Yearbook of International Organizations (1995/1996), Vol.1, p.288.Google Scholar

90. See the relevant chapters in the Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1991).Google Scholar

91. Chan, S.. “Three Birds of Different Feathers: The Commonwealth. The Commonwealth Secretary-General and the Commonwealth Secretariat” (1984) The Round Table 299.301.Google Scholar

92. “Commonwealth Quest—From a Faith in Symbols to a Commitment to Practical Action” (editorial) (1977) 67 The Round Table 111. 114.

93. See Human Rights Unit. “The Work of the Commonwealth Secretariat's Human Rights Unit” (1989). para.4.

94. Report of the Commonwealth Governmental Working Group of Experts on Human Rights (1990). pp.47.Google Scholar

95. Commonwealth Secretariat. Rights—The Commonwealth Approach to Human Dignity (1995). p.3.Google Scholar

96. Idem. p. 12.

97. There are paragraphs in all reports of the Commonwealth Secretary-General during the 1980s on the Secretariat's role in human rights. In the reports of the 1990s this has been expanded to a separate section on rights. See “Democracy. Human Rights and Sovereignty”. Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1991). pp.4144Google Scholar: “Promotion of Fundamental Political Values”. Report (1993). pp.2140Google Scholar: and “Promoting Good Governance”. Report (1995), pp. 1540.Google Scholar

98. Report (1991). idem. p.42. The Commonwealth Secretariat has also produced a manual by M. Seydegart et al., Human Rights Training for Public Officials (1990). as a practical guide for officials thinking of running human rights programmes.

99. Commonwealth Secretariat, op. cit. supra n.95. at p. 15.Google Scholar

100. Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1993). p.73.Google Scholar

101. See Framework for Developing a Comprehensive Programme for Human Rights Education and Training. Commonwealth Conference on Human Rights Education and Training. Christ Church, Oxford. 11–14 Sept. 1995.

102. See Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p.20.Google Scholar

103. Otlhogile, B.. “Observing for Democracy: A Note on the Practices of Commonwealth Observer Groups” (1994) African J.Int. and Comp.L. 293. 296.Google Scholar

104. Idem. p.298.

105. Saravanamutto, N.. “What Role Can the Commonwealth Play in Conflict Resolution?” (1995) The Round Table 145. 154155.Google Scholar

106. Groom, , op. cit. supra n.25. at p.297.Google Scholar

107. For a record of CHOGM communiqués and their development see The Commonwealth at the Summit, supra n.72.

108. The Limassol Communiqué (1993). Human rights are discussed specifically in paras.7–11.

109. Chan, . op. cit. supra n.91, at p.300.Google Scholar

110. Transcript of Joint News Conference with Prime Ministers Hawke and Mulroney. Harare. 14 Oct. 1991.Google Scholar

111. The Nassau Communiqué (1985). para.34: The Commonwealth at the Summit, supra n.72.

112. See the Lusaka Declaration of the Commonwealth on Racism and Racial Prejudice (1979). the Commonwealth Accord on Southern Africa (1985) and the Commonwealth Statement on Apartheid in Sport (1977), in Background Documents, supra n.6.

113. The Lusaka Declaration (1979) and the Lusaka Communiqué, para. 10. in The Commonwealth at the Summit, supra n.72.

114. The Kuala Lumpur Communiqué (1989). para.51.

115. The London Communiqué (1977), para.35. The Commonwealth at the Summit, supra n.72.

116. The Harare Communiqué (1991). para. 16.

117. Prime Minister Hawke indicated that the report “did come into general discussion” in Harare, although he avoided a journalist's question whether most of its recommendations were ignored: Transcript of News Conference with Prime Minister Hawke. 20 Oct. 1991.

118. Amnesty International. Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting Strengthens Commitment to Human Rights (1991). p.2.Google Scholar

119. Transcript of Joint News Conference with Prime Ministers Hawke and Major. Harare. 15 Oct. 1991. p.3.Google Scholar

120. Transcript of News Conference with Prime Minister Hawke. Harare. 20 Oct. 1991, p.3.Google Scholar

121. “From Apartheid to African Democracy”. The Australian, 17 Oct. 1991.Google Scholar

122. See “CHOGM Bid to Tie Human Rights to Aid Stalls”. The Australian, 16Oct. 1991. and Transcript of the Joint News Conference with Prime Ministers Hawke and Mulroney. Harare, 14 Oct. 1991.

123. See Mulroney, B., “Global Report: World Political Overview”, speech delivered at the Harare CHOGM on 16 Oct. 1991. p.2.Google Scholar

124. “Cleaning Up the Commonwealth”. The Australian. 22 Oct. 1991.Google Scholar

125. Ingram, D.. “Limassol Notebook” (1994) The Round Table 13.Google Scholar

126. “The Commonwealth After the CHOGM in Cyprus” (editorial) (1994) The Round Table 3.

127. CHRI. Act Right Now (1993), p.17.Google Scholar

128. The Limassol Communiqué (1993). paras.6.7–11 and 16–27.

129. Idem. paras.8–9.

130. Mclntyre, D.. “Dramatic. Tragic, Business-like and Progressive: The Auckland CHOGM Sets New Standards” (1996) 21 N.Z.lnt.Rev. 2.3.Google Scholar

131. The Auckland Communiqué (1995). paras. 11–12.

132. Idem. para.5.

133. Idem. para. 10.

134. “Nigeria Accuses Us of Rights Abuse”. The Weekend Australian, 11–12 Nov. 1995.Google Scholar

135. For further information about Commonwealth countries see the relevant sections of the Amnesty International Report (1996).Google Scholar

136. See Section B. “Measures in Response to Violations of Harare Principles” in The Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme on the Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1995).

137. See Schermers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n.13. at p.921 and text accompanying supra n.35.Google Scholar

138. “Auckland. November 1995: The Kia Kaha CHOGM” (editorial) (1996) The Round Table iii. vi.

139. Speech by the Nigerian Foreign Minister. Chief Tomi Ikimi, op. cit. supra n.50 at p.132.Google Scholar

140. See the Auckland Communiqué (1995), para.10: “Commonwealth Heads of Government, with the exception of The Gambia, agreed to suspend Nigeria from membership.” The Solomon Islands initially refused to support the suspension of Nigeria, but later withdrew its opposition; see Mclntyre, op. cit. supra n.130. at p.7.Google Scholar

141. Chan, . op. cit. supra n.16. at p.24.Google Scholar

142. Judicial Colloquium in Bangalore, Developing Human Rights Jurisprudence—The Domestic Application of International Human Rights Norms (1988). For a statement of the Bangalore Principles see idem. pp.ix–x. The Harare Declaration on Human Rights espoused at the Second Judicial Colloquium on the Domestic Application of International Human Rights Norms is extracted in M. D. Kirby, “Harare Declaration on Human Rights” (1989) 15 Commonwealth Law Bull. 999,1002–1005. The meetings in Banjul and Abuja confirmed the Bangalore Principles. See “Abuja Confirmation of the Domestic Application of International Human Rights Norms” (1992) 18 Commonwealth Law Bull. 298303.Google Scholar

143. See “1993 High Level Judicial Colloquium. Bloemfontein. South Africa” (1993) 19 Commonwealth Law Bull. 1644.

144. Ottawa Declaration on Women and Structural Adjustment (1990). annexed to the Harare Communiqué (1991), para.7.

145. “How Can Parliamentarians Improve Standards of Human Rights?” (1996) 77 The Parliamentarian 23–26.

146. Idem. p.23.

147. In para.40 of the communique of the 1990 Meeting of Commonwealth Law Ministers the “Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to human rights, which is a constant theme running through all Commonwealth legal issues”, reproduced in (1990) 16 Commonwealth Law Bull. 1030. See also Commonwealth Law Ministers Meeting. Mauritius. 1993 Communiqué. para.5. in (1993) 19 Commonwealth Law Bull. 2006: “For their own part. Ministers dedicated themselves to work in all practical ways, both collectively and at the national level to realize the aspirations expressed at Harare and Limassol.”

148. Communiqué of the Commonwealth Law Ministers Meeting, Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia. 15–19 Apr. 1996.

149. See Singh, S., “Extradition and Human Rights: An Australian Approach”, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of ANZl Land the ILA. 17,19 May 1996. pp. 115, 118.Google Scholar

150. For the full text of the Commonwealth Scheme for the Rendition of Fugitive Offenders, as amended in 1990, see (1990) 16 Commonwealth Law Bull. 1036.

151. Annex 1 of the Scheme, “Discretion as to Definition of Political Offences”, outlines the circumstances where the law may provide that certain acts are not offences of a political character.

152. Scheme Relating to Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters within the Commonwealth, para.7 (1996) 16 Commonwealth Law Bull. 1043.1044.

153. Singh, , op. cit. supra n.149. at p.117.Google Scholar

154. Commonwealth Law Ministers Meeting. 1993. Communiqué supra n.147. at para. 16.

155. CHRI. Put Our World to Rights—Towards a Commonwealth Human Rights Policy (1991). p.16.Google Scholar

156. CHRI, op. cit. supra n.127, at p.6.Google Scholar

157. Idem. p.iii.

158. See idem. chap.II: “The Record of Human Rights in the Commonwealth”, pp.20–33.

159. See CHRI. Rights DO Matter (1995). chaps.2 and 3. In 1995 CHRI also held a workshop on the topic of prisons, resulting in its report Behind Prison Walls—Police, Prisons and Human Rights (1995).

160 . Chri, , op. cit. supra n.155, at p.19.Google Scholar

161. Idem. p.183.

162. Chri, , Nigeria Stolen by Generals—Abuja After the Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1995). p.iii.Google Scholar

163. Bourne, R., “The Commonwealth and Human Rights” (1991) The Round Table 411, 412.Google Scholar

164. Idem, p.413.

165. Chri, , op. cit. supra n.127. at pp.3640.Google Scholar

166. Chri, , op. cit. supra n.155. at p.5.Google Scholar

167. See Anyaoku, , op. cit. supra n.74. at p.2.Google Scholar

168. Commonwealth Secretariat. Human Rights Unit. p.2. This statement was first articulated in the Melbourne Declaration (1981). annexed to the Melbourne Communiqué (1981). 169.Google Scholar

169. The Commonwealth Declaration of Principles (1971). para.9 and the Nassau Declaration on World Order (1985). supra n.72.

170. Harare Commonwealth Declaration (1991). para.9.

171. Le Blanc, L. J.. The OAS and the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (1977). pp.2829.Google Scholar

172. Idem. p.29.

173. Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1991). p.41.Google Scholar

174. Report of the Commonwealth Secretary-General (1995). p.17.Google Scholar

175. The Vancouver Statement is quoted in “Fiji no longer C'wealth member’ (1987) Commonwealth Currents 5.Google Scholar

176. Ibid. For further information about Fiji and the Commonwealth see Barltrop, R.. “Fiji, Crown and Commonwealth” (1996) The Round Table 8389.Google Scholar

177. Chief Tomi Ikimi. op. cit. supra n.50. at p.132.Google Scholar

178. Report of the Commonwealth Governmental Working Group of Experts on Human Rights (1990), pp.48.Google Scholar

179. See Schemers, and Blokker, . op. cit. supra n. 13. at p.863 and text accompanying supra n.30.Google Scholar

180. Britain and the Future Roles of the Commonwealth” supra n.50. at p.ix.Google Scholar

181. See “Selected Regional Human Rights Treaties”, in the Amnesty International Report (1996).pp.357359.Google Scholar

182. See the Limassol Communiqué (1993). paras.8–9. and the Auckland Communiqué (1995) paras.6–7. In 1993 the Law Ministers urged members to give priority to becoming Gamparties to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) and to adopt the draft UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women: Commonwealth Law Ministers Meeting. Communiqué supra n.147, at para.24.

183. See “Ratifications or Signatures of International Instruments”, in CHRI, op. cit. supra n.l 55. at pp.228229Google Scholar; and CHRI. Rights …, op. cit. supra n.159. at pp.7677. The two conventions recording the greatest increase in ratifications are the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979).Google Scholar

184. See supra nn.161 and 165.

185. Saravanamutto, . op. cit. supra n.105, at p. 145.Google Scholar

186. Millbrook. supra n.80. at Section C, “Mechanism for Implementation of Measures”.

187. “Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group” (1996) 40 J. African L. 124, 125126.Google Scholar

188. Fifth Meeting of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration, New York. 28–29 Sept. 1996 in (1996) The Round Table 510.511.

189. Kirgis, . op. cit. supra n.34, at p.523.Google Scholar

190. Idem. pp.388–389.

191. Note also that the Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, supra n.80. includes “immediate public expression by the Secretary-General of the Commonwealth's collective disapproval” as one possible response to an unconstitutional overthrow of government: see Section B: “Measures in Response to Violation of Harare Principles”, para.3(i).

192. “CHOGMs Chamber of Horrors … and How to Fix it”. The Weekend Australian, 12–13 Oct. 1991.Google Scholar

193. See e.g. Capotorti, F., “The International Measures of Implementation included in the Covenants on Human Rights” and S. MacBride, “The Strengthening of International Machinery for the Protection of Human Rights”, in Eide, A. and Schou, A. (Eds). International Protection of Human Rights (1968). pp. 142, 158 respectively.Google Scholar

194. CHRI. op. cit. supra n.155, at p.183.Google Scholar

195. Nossal, K.. “International Sanctions as International Punishment” (1989) 43 International Organization 302, 303.Google Scholar

196. Concluding Statement from the First Meeting of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration, reproduced in (1996) The Round Table 253,254.

197. Ogunrinde, C.. “Democracy Quest Branded as Mission Impossible” Gemini News Service. 19 July 1996.Google Scholar

198. Ingram, D.. “Abacha Keeps Commonwealth Outside the Door” Gemini News Service. 11 Mar. 1996.Google Scholar

199. “Commonwealth Proposes Further Measures Against Military Regime in Nigeria” (1996) 2 Commonwealth Currents 3.Google Scholar

200. However. Canada decided to impose certain sanctions immediately. See “Dialogue with Military Regimes” (1996) 3 Commonwealth Currents 7.Google Scholar

201. Joint Statement by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration and the Government of Nigeria, in (1996) The Round Table 510.

202. Fifth Meeting, supra n. 188.

203. Statement by the Chairman of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration at the Conclusion of the Group's Mission to Nigeria. 22 Nov. 1996.

204. Ingram, D.. “Nigeria Outwits Eight Foreign Ministers” Gemini News Service. 28 June 1996.Google Scholar

205. Chan, op. cit. supra n.16. at p.19.Google Scholar

206. Durr, K.. “South Africa and the Commonwealth” (1994) The Round Table 169. 172.Google Scholar

207. Commonwealth Secretariat, op. cit. supra n.95. at p.5.Google Scholar

208. “The Commonwealth and Human Rights” (editorial) (1995) The Round Table iii, iv.

209. Doxey, M., “Continuity and Change in the Commonwealth” (1989) Yearbook of World Affairs 76.98.Google Scholar

210. Ibid.

211. Casey, op. cit. supra n.l. at p.165.Google Scholar