Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-wq484 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T18:07:45.002Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CHARLES II, EXILE, AND THE PROBLEM OF ALLEGIANCE*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2011

NICOLE GREENSPAN
NICOLE GREENSPAN*
Affiliation:
Hampden-Sydney College
*
Department of History, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, VA, 23943ngreenspan@hsc.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Following the execution of his father Charles I in January 1649, the exiled king Charles II pursued various political, military, and diplomatic strategies to recover his kingdoms. Proclaimed king of Ireland and Scotland, Charles II adopted the traditional view of monarch–subject relations and expected the loyalty of his subjects and their devotion to his restoration. The recent experiences of war and regicide, however, had changed the ways in which Irish and Scottish subjects determined the nature and degree of allegiance owed to the king. In Ireland and Scotland, subjects placed their own interests above the royalist cause. Tensions in Ireland among Catholics and between Catholics and Protestants tested the bonds of loyalty to Charles II, and Scottish Covenanters circumscribed the king's authority and imposed strict conditions upon their political and military support. Moreover, Charles II's position of exile exacerbated existing tensions within his kingdoms. While Charles I experienced the withdrawal of his subjects' allegiance and strove to recover that loyalty, as an exiled king Charles II struggled to gain the allegiance of his kingdoms and to secure loyalty in the face of religious tension, geographic distance, failing war efforts, and conflicting interests among his subjects.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 54 , Issue 1 , March 2011 , pp. 73 - 103
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I am grateful to Julian Hoppitt, the anonymous readers for the Historical Journal, Katherine Worley, and Joseph Deasey for their helpful comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank Hampden-Sydney College for the fellowship which enabled me to complete this article.

References

1 Bodleian Library (Bodl. Lib.) Clarendon MS 41, fo. 39.

2 See for example Jason McElligott and David L. Smith, eds., Royalists and royalism during the English civil wars (Cambridge, 2007); Jason McElligott, Royalism, print and censorship in revolutionary England (Woodbridge, 2007); David L. Smith, Constitutional royalism and the search for settlement, c. 1640–1649 (Cambridge, 1994); Geoffrey Smith, Cavaliers in exile (Houndmills, 2003); Ronald Hutton, The royalist war effort, 1642–1646 (2nd edn, London, 2003); David Underdown, Royalist conspiracy in England, 1649–1660 (New Haven, CT, 1960); Robert Wilcher, The writing of royalism, 1628–1660 (Cambridge, 2001); Lois Potter, Secret rites and secret writing: royalist literature, 1641–1660 (Cambridge, 1989); Jerome De Groot, Royalist identities (Palgrave, 2004); John Cronin, ‘The Irish royalist elite of Charles II in exile, c. 1649–1660’ (D. Phil. thesis, European University Institute, 2007).

3 See in particular Smith, Cavaliers; Hester W. Chapman, The tragedy of Charles II in the years 1630–1660 (London, 1964); Eva Scott, The king in exile: the wanderings of Charles II, from June 1646 to July 1654 (New York, NY, 1905); idem, The travels of the king: Charles II in Germany and Flanders 1654–1660 (London, 1907).

4 For the politics of allegiance and its role in the civil wars, see Joyce Lee Malcolm, Caesar's due: loyalty and King Charles, 1642–1646 (London, 1983); idem, ‘Doing no wrong: law, liberty, and the constraint of kings’, Journal of British Studies, 38, (1999), pp. 161–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johann Sommerville, Royalists and patriots: politics and ideology in England, 1603–1640 (2nd edn, London, 1999); Glenn Burgess, Absolute monarchy and the Stuart constitution (New Haven, CT, 1996); Weil, Rachel, ‘Thinking about allegiance in the English civil war’, History Workshop Journal, 61, (2006), pp. 183–191CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nicholas D. Jackson, Hobbes, Bramhall and the politics of liberty and necessity: a quarrel of the civil wars and interregnum (Cambridge, 2007); John Sanderson, ‘But the people's creatures’: the philosophical basis of the civil war (Manchester, 1989).

5 For extended treatment of royalist restoration efforts see Scott, King in exile and Travels of the king; Underdown, Royalist conspiracy; Richard Ollard, Clarendon and his friends (London, 1987); Chapman, Tragedy of Charles II; Ronald Hutton, Charles II: king of England, Scotland, and Ireland (Oxford, 1989).

6 Questier, Michael, ‘Loyalty, religion and state power in early modern England: English romanism and the Jacobean oath of allegiance’, Historical Journal, 40, (1997), pp. 311–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also the Scottish oath of 1612, which required swearers to denounce all foreign power and authority over temporal and ecclesiastical matters. Thomas Thomson and Cosmo Innes, eds., The acts of the parliaments of Scotland (12 vols., Edinburgh, 1815–75), iv, pp. 469–70.

7 Vallance, Edward, ‘Oaths, casuistry, and equivocation: Anglican responses to the Engagement controversy’, Historical Journal, 44, (2001), pp. 59–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, Revolutionary England and the National Covenant: state oaths, Protestantism and the political nation (London, 2005), esp. pp. 103–7, 167–74; Barbara Donegan, ‘Casuistry and allegiance in the English civil war’, in Derek Hirst and Richard Strier, eds., Writing and political engagement in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 89–111.

8 Vallance, Revolutionary England, p. 44 and passim; John Coffey, ‘Samuel Rutherford and the political thought of the Scottish Covenanters’, in John R. Young, ed., The Celtic dimensions of the British civil wars (Edinburgh, 1997), pp. 75, 84–5; Allan I. Macinnes, ‘The Scottish constitution, 1638–1651: the rise and fall of oligarchic centralism’, in John Morrill, ed., The Scottish National Covenant in its British context (Edinburgh, 1990), p. 110.

9 Nenner, Howard, ‘Loyalty and the law: the meaning of trust and the right of resistance in seventeenth-century England’, Journal of British Studies, 48 (Oct. 2009), pp. 860–1CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 866–7; Sarah Barber, Regicide and republicanism (Edinburgh, 1998); Vallance, Revolutionary England, pp. 7–14, 66 and passim.

10 BL Add. MS 4190, fos. 190–2. On the difficulty of balancing loyalties and reconciling contradictory oaths see hAnnracháin, Tadgh Ó, ‘Conflicting loyalties, conflicted rebels: political and religious allegiance among the Confederate Catholics of Ireland’, English Historical Review, 119, (2004), esp. pp. 851–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vallance, ‘Oaths’; idem, Revolutionary England, esp. chs. 2–3; Elliot Vernon, ‘The quarrel of the Covenant: the London presbyterians and the regicide’, in Jason Peacey, ed., The regicides and the execution of Charles I (Basingstoke, 2001), pp. 202–24.

11 Jane Ohlmeyer, Civil war and restoration in the three Stuart kingdoms: the career of Randal MacDonnell, marquis of Antrim, 1609–1683 (Cambridge, 1993), esp. pp. 8–10, 208–9, 212–13, 217–18, 220–5, 241.

12 For outlines of the absolutist and constitutionalist positions see Burgess, Absolute monarchy, esp. ch. 2; Smith, Constitutional royalism, esp. pp. 6–7, 11, 100, 105, 220.

13 The third group usually identified in studies of royalist factions is the ‘swordsmen’ or ‘military hardliners’. See Smith, Constitutional royalism; Hutton, Ronald, ‘The structure of the royalist party, 1642–1646’, Historical Journal, 24, (1981), pp. 553–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, Charles II, pp. 40–6; Roy, Ian, ‘The royalist council of war, 1642–1646’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 35, (1962), pp. 150–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Underdown, Royalist conspiracy, pp. 10–11 and passim.

14 See David Scott, ‘Counsel and cabal in the king's party, 1642–1646’, in McElligott and Smith, eds., Royalists, pp. 127–35; idem, ‘Rethinking royalist politics, 1642–9’, in John Adamson, ed., The English civil war (Houndmills, 2009), pp. 37–44; McElligott and Smith, ‘Introduction: rethinking royalists and royalism’, in McElligott and Smith, eds., Royalists, pp. 11–12.

15 See for example Smith, Cavaliers; Daly, James, ‘The implications of royalist politics, 1642–1646’, Historical Journal, 27, (1984), pp. 745–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McElligott, Royalism, pp. 94–6; McElligott and Smith, eds., Royalists, pp. 11–12; Michelle White, Henrietta Maria and the English civil wars (Aldershot, 2006), esp. chs. 3, 5; Cronin, ‘Irish royalist elite’, pp. 24–6, 226–34.

16 Barbara Donegan, ‘Varieties of royalism’, in McElligott and Smith, eds., Royalists, pp. 66–88. For the importance of religion in the determination of popular allegiance during the civil war see Mark Stoyle, Loyalty and locality: popular allegiance in Devon during the English civil war (Exeter, 1994).

17 Donegan, ‘Varieties of royalism’, pp. 71, 81–3.

18 Weil, ‘Thinking about allegiance’, pp. 183–91.

19 British Library (BL) Add. MS 19399, fo. 62.

20 BL Add. MS 2541, fos. 362–76.

21 Patrick Little, ‘O'Brien, Murrough, first earl of Inchiquin (c. 1614–1674)’, Oxford dictionary of national biography (Oxford, 2004).

22 For a rare examination of Nedham's royalism see McElligott, Royalism, pp. 111–25.

23 Robert Armstrong, ‘Ormond, the Confederate peace talks and Protestant royalism’, in Micheál Ó Siochrú, ed. Kingdoms in crisis: Ireland in the 1640s. Essays in honour of Donal Crógan (Dublin, 2001), p. 126; McElligott, Royalism, ch. 4.

24 De Groot, Royalist identities, p. 2.

25 McElligott and Smith, ‘Introduction’, in McElligott and Smith, eds., Royalists, pp. 12–13.

26 On Ireland and the problem of allegiance in the civil wars see Micheál Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, 1642–1649 (Dublin, 1999); idem, God's executioner: Oliver Cromwell and the conquest of Ireland (London, 2008), pp. 1–134; idem, ed., Kingdoms in crisis; Padraig Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at war, 1641–1649 (Cork, 2001); idem, ‘Catholicism and the Irish Confederate armies: for God or king?’, Recusant History, 22, (1994), pp. 182–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tadgh Ó hAnnracháin, Catholic Reformation in Ireland: the mission of Rinuccini, 1645–1649 (Oxford, 2002); Crógan, Donal F., ‘The Confederate Catholics in Ireland: the personnel of the Confederation, 1642–1649’, Irish Historical Studies, 29 (1994–5), pp. 490–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ian Gentles, The English revolution and the wars in the three kingdoms, 1638–1652 (Harlow, 2007), ch. 2 and passim.

27 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 65, fos. 447, 448, 450, 465v. The terms were published in The articles of peace (London, 1649), pp. 1–35.

28 David Stevenson, Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates: Scottish–Irish relations in the mid-seventeenth century (Belfast, 1981), pp. 104ff.

29 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fos. 5, 10.

30 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 19v–20, at fo. 19v.

31 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 58. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 33, 59, 61.

32 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 19v.

33 In general the ‘clerical party’ had been closely associated with the papal nuncio Rinuccini and the Ulster Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill in the 1640s. See Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland; Lenihan, Confederate Catholics; Ó hAnnracháin, Catholic Reformation, esp. chs. 4–6. For an overview of the three main Catholic groups in Ireland (the clerical party, moderates, and the peace party) from 1645 to 1649 see Ó hAnnracháin, ‘Conflicting loyalties’, pp. 856–62.

34 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 185.

35 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 21.

36 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 13.

37 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 37.

38 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fo. 138r–v.

39 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 33r–v, at fo. 33v.

40 See Ó hAnnracháin, ‘Conflicting loyalties’, pp. 859, 861.

41 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 26, fo. 45r-v. See also Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fo. 58.

42 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 230r–v.

43 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 164.

44 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 216.

45 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 215r–v.

46 A seasonable and necessary warning and declaration concerning present and imminent dangers (Edinburgh, 1649), p. 12; A declaration and warning unto all the members of this Kirk and kingdome (Edinburgh, 1650), p. 5; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 83r–v.

47 Stevenson, Scottish Covenanters, pp. 273–4.

48 Ibid., p. 272. For the spread, influence, and popularity of the Covenant in Ireland see Robert Armstrong, Protestant war: The ‘British’ of Ireland and the wars of the three kingdoms (Manchester, 2005), ch. 4; idem, ‘Ireland's puritan revolution? The emergence of Ulster presbyterianism reconsidered’, English Historical Review, 121, (2006), pp. 1048–74Google Scholar; Michael Perceval-Maxwell, ‘Ireland and Scotland, 1638–1648’, in Morrill, ed., Scottish National Covenant, pp. 193–211.

49 Montgomery's royalism was not a new development; he had, for example, supported the Scottish–royalist Engagement of 1648. For the Engagement see David Stevenson, Revolution and counter-revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651 (London, 1977), pp. 94–122.

50 Stevenson, Scottish Covenanters, pp. 273–74.

51 For discussions of Irish ‘barbarism’, see Noonan, Kathleen M., ‘“The cruel pressure of an enraged, barbarous people”: Irish and English identity in seventeenth-century policy and propaganda’, Historical Journal, 41, (1998), pp. 151–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dillingham, John, ‘Images of Ireland, 1170–1600: the origins of English imperialism’, History Today, 37, (1987), pp. 16–22Google Scholar; idem, ‘The English invasion of Ireland’, in Brendan Bradshaw, Andrew Hadfield, and Willy Maley, eds., Representing Ireland: literature and the origins of conflict, 1534–1660 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 24–42.

52 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fos. 333, 339, at fo. 339.

53 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fos. 116, 132.

54 These positions, however, were neither hard nor fast. For extended discussions of these debates see Hutton, Charles II, pp. 34–132; Underdown, Royalist conspiracy, pp. 60–3, 243–4 and passim; Ollard, Clarendon, pp. 123–219.

55 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 10. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 13v.

56 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 5.

57 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 138r–v.

58 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 175, 176.

59 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 13r–v.

60 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 37, fo. 43r–v, at fo. 43v.

61 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 65, fo. 485v. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 65, fos. 488, 490v–491; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 490–1.

62 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25 fo. 490; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 65 fos. 490v–491.

63 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 24 fo. 699v.

64 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 13.

65 Ó Siochrú, God's executioner, chs. 4–5; Ian Gentles, The new model army in England, Ireland and Scotland, 1645–1653 (Oxford, 1992), esp. pp. 361–9; idem, English Revolution, pp. 392ff; James Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland (New York, NY, 1999), chs. 3–4. On Ireland in the 1650s more generally see Ó Siochrú, God's executioner; T. C. Barnard, Cromwellian Ireland: English government and reform in Ireland, 1649–1660 (Oxford, 2000).

66 See for example Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fos. 55v, 67, 110, 112 (the foliation in Carte 28 is problematic after fo. 53); Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fos. 20, 24r–v and passim; BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 22.

67 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 23; Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 13 and passim.

68 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 24v.

69 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 175; Carte MS 27, fo. 133. See also Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fos. 32, 73. 115v.

70 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 7.

71 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 8.

72 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 120.

73 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 146–7.

74 BL Egerton MS 2542, fos. 22–3.

75 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 285.

76 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 133.

77 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 64.

78 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 1.

79 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 24, fos. 795–6; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 19–22.

80 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fos. 66v–67, at fo. 66v.

81 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 108.

82 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 112v.

83 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 104. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 313.

84 Ó Siochrú, God's executioner, p. 147.

85 David Edwards, ‘The poisoned chalice: the Ormond inheritance, sectarian division and the emergence of James Butler, 1614–1642’, in Toby Barnard and J. Fenlon, eds., The dukes of Ormonde, 1610–1745 (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 55–82.

86 Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, pp. 77–83. The first Peace of 1646 was rejected by the clerical party and the treaty was suspended. Ó hAnnracháin argues that the so-called ‘peace party’ was as much if not more responsible for the renewed violence in 1648 as was the clerical party. Ó hAnnracháin, ‘Conflicting loyalties’, pp. 860 ff.

87 Forkan, Kevin, ‘Ormond's alternative: the lord lieutenant's secret contacts with Protestant Ulster, 1645–1646’, Historical Research, 81, (2008), pp. 610–35Google Scholar. Ormond also maintained communication with the English parliament during this period. See Patrick Little, ‘The marquess of Ormond and the English parliament, 1645–1647’, in Barnard and Fenlon, eds., Dukes of Ormonde, pp. 83–99.

88 Armstrong, ‘Ormond’, pp. 129, 135.

89 For a comparison of the first and second Peace see Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, pp. 198–201.

90 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 285.

91 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 285.

92 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 287r–v.

93 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 346.

94 Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, esp. pp. 123–42; Ó hAnnracháin, ‘Conflicting loyalties’, pp. 856–9. By 1650, Plunkett, along with Nicholas French, Lord Taaffe, and others who had previously backed Ormond began to question their support and entered into negotiations with the duke of Lorraine, offering Lorraine the Protectorate of Ireland. Siochrú, Ó, ‘The Duke of Lorraine and the international struggle for Ireland, 1649–1653’, Historical Journal, 48 (2005), pp. 915, 918, 923–5Google Scholar.

95 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 5.

96 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 54. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fos. 33r–v, 35 and passim.

97 See for example Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 33; ibid., fo. 51 and passim; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 285; Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fos. 21, 40.

98 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 33v.

99 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 62. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 67r–v and passim.

100 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 70.

101 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 281v.

102 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 35.

103 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 54. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fo. 67r–v.

104 Ó Siochrú, God's executioner, pp. 152–3.

105 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 28, fos. 300–2.

106 S. R. Gardiner, Charles II and Scotland in 1650 (Edinburgh, 1894), p. 143.

107 Thomas Carte, ed., A collection of original letters and papers concerning the affairs of England, from the year 1641 to 1660 (2 vols., Dublin, 1759), ii, p. 451.

108 BL Egerton MS 2534, fo. 40.

109 For the negotiations see A. F. Mitchell and J. Christie, eds., The records of the commissions of the general assemblies of the Church of Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh, Scottish History Society, 1st series, 1892–1909) (hereafter RCGA), ii–iii. Portions of the negotiations between the king and the commissioners of the parliament and Kirk subsequently were printed in The proceedings of the commissioners of the church and kingdom of Scotland with his majestie at The Hague (Edinburgh, 1649).

110 A proclamation or act by the parliament of Scotland, for the proclaiming of Charles Prince of Wales, king of Great Brittain, France and Ireland (Edinburgh, 1649), p. 13. Copies are in BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 2, and Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS, fo. 7v. On the Covenanter movement and its impact on Anglo-Scottish relations see Stevenson, Revolution; Allan I. Macinnes, Charles I and the making of the Covenanting movement, 1625–1641 (Edinburgh, 1991); Peter Donald, An uncounselled king: Charles I and the Scottish troubles, 1637–1641 (Cambridge, 1990).

111 RCGA, ii, p. 246 and passim; Proceedings of the commissioners, sigs. a2v, a3, b2, C2 and passim. For the circumscriptions on royal authority in Scotland in the late 1630s and 1640s see Walter Makey, The Church of the Covenant, 1637–1651: revolution and social change in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1979), p. 28; Coffey, ‘Samuel Rutherford’, pp. 78–80; Macinnes, ‘Scottish constitution’, pp. 109–13.

112 God save the king (Edinburgh, 1649), broadside. A copy, with some minor variations, of the proclamation of Charles II as king is contained in BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 2.

113 RCGA, ii, pp. 197–8.

114 Ibid., ii, pp. 213, 14.

115 John Bramhall, A fair warning, to take heed of the Scottish discipline (n.p., 1649), p. 3. See also BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 40; George F. Warner, ed., The Nicholas papers: correspondence of Sir Edward Nicholas, secretary of state (4 vols., Camden Society, 1886–1920), iii, pp. 11, 12, 21, 22. For Bramhall's role in developing the Church of Ireland in the 1630s see John McCafferty, The reconstruction of the Church of Ireland: Bishop Bramhall and the Laudian reforms, 1633–1641 (Cambridge, 2007). On Bramhall's royalism and Anglicanism in the 1650s see Jackson, Hobbes, Bramhall, and the politics of liberty and necessity; Cronin, ‘Irish royalist elite’, pp. 362–8.

116 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 46, fo. 95v. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 133; Edward M. Furgol, ‘The military and ministers as agents of presbyterian imperialism in England and Ireland, 1640–1648’, in John Dwyer, Roger A. Mason, and Alexander Murdoch, eds., New perspectives on the politics and culture of early modern Scotland (Edinburgh, 1982), pp. 95–103.

117 See for example BL Egerton MS 2534, fo. 48v; BL Egerton MS 2535 fo. 110; Proceedings of the commissioners, sig. a4.

118 Mercurius Politicus, 10–17 Apr. 1651, pp. 720–1.

119 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fos. 217, 219; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 48, fo. 173r–v; Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 213, fo. 12v; R. W. Harris, Clarendon and the English revolution (London, 1983), pp. 154–5 and passim; Underdown, Royalist conspiracy, pp. 60–3 and passim.

120 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 10v.

121 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 38, fo. 139. See also Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 49, fo. 75.

122 Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 27, fo. 241v; Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fo. 111 and passim; BL Egerton MS 2534, fos. 49v, 59v; Donald Nicholas, Mr. Secretary Nicholas (1593–1669): his life and letters (London, 1955), pp. 145, 237–8, 241–2; Harris, Clarendon and the English revolution, pp. 154–5, 166–7 and passim.

123 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 42.

124 RCGA, ii, p. 213; Robert Baillie, A review of the seditious pamphlet lately pnblished [sic] in Holland by Dr Bramhell (Delph, 1649).

125 Proceedings of the commissioners, sig. a4.

126 RCGA, ii, pp. 243, 245; Proceedings of the commissioners, sigs. a2v, a4v–bv, b2, c2r–v.

127 RCGA, ii, pp. 244, 245, at p. 245.

128 Proceedings of the commissioners, sig. a3.

129 Ibid., sigs. A3v, A4.

130 Ibid., sig. a.

131 Ibid., sig. b2. See also Bodl. Lib. Carte MS 25, fo. 181v.

132 Proceedings of the commissioners, sig. b3.

133 Ibid., sig. b3.

134 Ibid., sigs. a3v–a4.

135 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 41, fo. 16; Stevenson, Revolution, pp. 149–50.

136 RCGA, ii, pp. 354–5.

137 Ibid., ii, p. 372. See also ibid., ii, pp. 385–6.

138 Stevenson, Revolution, pp. 149–63.

139 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fo. 29.

140 Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 39, fo. 96v.

141 BL Egerton MS 2534, fo. 48v.

142 RCGA, ii, pp. 390, 392.

143 RCGA, iii, p. 26.

144 The humble remonstrance and supplication of the officers of the army (Edinburgh, 1650), broadsheet. See also RCGA, iii, pp. 16–17. A copy is contained among the Nicholas papers in BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 51.

145 RCGA, iii, p. 27.

146 Ibid., iii, p. 29.

147 Ibid., iii, pp. 32, 33, 41, 42.

148 Ibid., iii, pp. 41–2.

149 BL Egerton MS 2542, fos. 46v–47. See also RCGA, iii, pp. 11–12.

150 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 52; RCGA, ii, pp. 460–5; A declaration by the king's majesty to his subjects of the kingdomes of Scotland, England, and Ireland (Edinburgh, 1650).

151 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 46.

152 RCGA, iii, pp. 49–50.

153 Ibid., iii, p. 51.

154 Gentles, English Revolution, pp. 419–25; Stevenson, Revolution, pp. 179ff.

155 The humble remonstrance of the gentlemen, officers, and ministers attending the western forces, in RCGA, iii, pp. 95–106, at p. 95. Much of the text, together with response of the king and committee of estates, is printed in The Scots remonstrance (London, 1651). See also Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 41, fos. 21–6.

156 Humble Remonstrance, in RCGA, iii, p.98.

157 Ibid., iii, p. 97.

158 Ibid., iii, p. 98.

159 The protestation of diverse ministers, against the proceedings of the late commission of the Church of Scotland (Leith, 1651). For the Remonstrant/Protestor split by the end of 1651 see Stevenson, Revolution, pp. 186–95; F. D. Dow, Cromwellian Scotland, 1651–1660 (Edinburgh, 1979), pp. 9–10 and passim; Macinnes, ‘Scottish constitution’, esp. pp. 126–8.

160 RCGA, iii, 203, 211, 220–1, 225 and passim. See also A short exhortation and warning, to the ministers and professours of this Kirk; from the commission of the generall assemblie (Perth, 20 Mar. 1651); A solemn warning to all the members of this Kirk, from the commission of the generall assemblie (Aberdeen, 1651), esp. pp. 11–16; The answer of the commission of the generall assemblie (Aberdeen, 1651).

161 Answer of the commission, p. 7.

162 RCGA, iii, pp. 159–60.

163 Ibid., iii, p. 173 and passim; Bodl. Lib. Clarendon MS 41, fo. 4r–v.

164 Alexander Jaffray, Diary of Alexander Jaffray, ed. John Barclay (Aberdeen, 1856), pp. 57–8. See also Archibald Johnston, The diary of Sir Archibald Johnston of Wariston, ii: 1650–1654, ed. David Hay Fleming (Edinburgh, 1919), pp. 131–2.

165 Jaffray, Diary, p. 55. Italics are in the original. Jaffray maintained that he pleaded with Charles II to accept the Scottish terms only if his conscience agreed.

166 On the battle of Worcester see Gentles, English Revolution, pp. 427–32; Stevenson, Revolution, pp. 207ff.

167 The declaration & engagement of the marquis of Huntley, the earle of Atholl, Generall Middleton & many of the nobility of Scotland (The Hague, 1650), broadsheet. A copy is contained in BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 58.

168 BL Egerton MS 2542, fos. 91–2, 105–7.

169 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 106r–v, at fo. 106v.

170 BL Egerton MS 2542, fos. 116v–117.

171 For the Cromwellian suppression of the risings in Scotland see Dow, Cromwellian Scotland, pp. 123–43.

172 BL Egerton MS 2542, fo. 123v.