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Roman Literature After The Gracchi
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 January 2009
Extract
The Gracchi in literature as in all else mark a turning-point in Roman history; they brought one epoch to a close and inaugurated a fresh one; and by their choice of means to effect their end they unwittingly determined the direction of events for the following century. In order to be able to appreciate the literature as a reflection and a phenomenon of its society, we must first briefly consider the effects of the Gracchi upon political life, and then the effects of that political life upon Roman society. The Gracchi set out to solve certain problems; but owing to the twist that they gave to Roman history, those problems fell into the background, to be supplanted by a problem of politics which absorbed all the energies of the governing class to the exclusion of the problems which should have been their main concern and responsibility.
The problems that confronted the State at the time of the Gracchi were many; they were social, economic, political, and administrative problems of vast complexity that required wisdom, patience, and, above all, goodwill for their solution. By this time real political power was wielded by a comparatively small number of families, grouped round leading men; they had come to believe that they governed by divine right, and while the better among them were aware of their responsibilities, there were many to whom the emoluments of government were reason enough for restricting the profits of empire among the smallest number. During the second century the attitude of the governing class had become conservative, opposed to any change which might alter the existing organization or deprive them of some of their great power.
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- Copyright © The Classical Association 1951
References
page 123 note 1 This article is based on a paper read to the Classical Association of New South Wales in October 1949.
page 124 note 1 Plutarch, , Tib. Gracch. 8. 4.Google Scholar
page 124 note 2 For a defence of the Senate's behaviour in this war, see De Sanctis, Problemi di Storia Antica, pp. 187 ff., who shows good reason for supposing that the Populares and the Equites forced the Senate to embark on a major war which was not in Rome's best interests. Cf. C.A.H. ix, pp. 131 ff. (Last).
page 125 note 1 The Lex Apuleia of 103 (?) seems to have been primarily aimed at Servilius Caepio and Mallius, who had been defeated at Arausio in 105.
page 126 note 1 As was shown by the massacre which opened the Mithradatic War in 88.
page 126 note 2 Cf. Momigliano, in J.R.S. 1904, pp. 79–80.Google Scholar
page 126 note 3 Ad Fam. 8. 14. 3.
page 126 note 4 Bell. Civ. 1. 7–9.
page 127 note 1 De Leg. 3. 15. 33–17. 39.
page 127 note 2 Cf. Ad Quint. Frat. 2.3.2–3, for a description of a typical piece of hooliganism.
page 128 note 1 Cf. the opposition to C. Gracchus' proposed colony at Carthage on the ground that wolves had torn up the boundary stones (Appian, B.C. 1. 24. 106), although there were no wolves in those parts, and the story was merely invented to thwart the proposal.
page 128 note 2 In the year 58.
page 130 note 1 Cassiodorus, Chron. ii, p. 131, 639: ‘Censores artem ludicram ex urbe removerunt praeter latinum tibicinem cum cantore et ludum talarium.’ The Latin flute-player was considered less licentious.
page 130 note 2 Ennodius, Paneg. dictus Theod. 85. Hitherto gladiatorial shows had been part of funeral games; now they were given purely for entertainment.
page 130 note 3 Suet. Rhet. 1.
page 130 note 4 Cf. Bickel, , Gesch. der Röm. Lit., pp. 123–4.Google Scholar
page 131 note 1 This aspect of Roman literature is well brought out by Rostagni, La Letteratura di Roma Republicana ed Augustea.
page 131 note 2 Though the comparison is a fair one, it should be borne in mind that there was in spite of everything a vigour and robustness about Rome that was absent from Alexandria.
page 131 note 3 Cf.Garrod, , Oxford Book of Latin Verse, introd., pp. xvi ff.Google Scholar
page 133 note 1 Tusc. 1. 1f.
page 133 note 2 Hannibal 13. 4; the object of the Lives was the comparison of Roman with foreign—chiefly Greek—men of action, in order that Romans might see that they had produced men as distinguished as other nations.
page 133 note 3 Cf. Last in J.R.S., 1944, p. 117.
page 134 note 1 Acad. Post. 1. 3. 9.
page 135 note 1 We may compare the change in English parliamentary eloquence between 1910 and 1930.