Norovirus–host interaction: implications for disease control and prevention

Ming Tan; Xi Jiang

doi:10.1017/S1462399407000348

Norovirus–host interaction: implications for disease control and prevention

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 July 2007

Ming Tan and

Xi Jiang

Show author details

Ming Tan: Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, USA.
Xi Jiang*: Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, USA.
*: *Corresponding author: Xi Jiang, Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, 3333 Burnet Ave, Cincinnati, OH45229-3039, USA. Tel: +1 513 636 0119; Fax: +1 513 636 7655; E-mail: jason.jiang@cchmc.org

Article contents

Abstract
References

Get access

Rights & Permissions

Abstract

Noroviruses (NVs) are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis epidemics in both developing and developed countries and affect people of all ages. Three main human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) – the ABO, Lewis and secretor families – are involved in NV recognition and eight strain-specific receptor-binding patterns in two major binding groups have been described. The receptor-binding interface is located at the outermost surface of the P domain of the viral capsid. Each interface contains two major binding sites and each site interacts with a carbohydrate side-chain of the HBGAs via multiple hydrogen bonds. Soluble HBGAs in human milk are able to block binding of NV to HBGA receptors, suggesting a potential decoy receptor for the protection of infants from NV infection. Phylogenetic analysis has revealed limited genetic relatedness among NVs with similar receptor-binding patterns. This review summarises and discusses recent advances and highlights implications for future studies in the control and prevention of NV gastroenteritis.

Type: Review Article
Information: Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine , Volume 9 , Issue 19 , July 2007 , pp. 1 - 22

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1462399407000348 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Green, K.Y. et al. (2000) Taxonomy of the caliciviruses. J Infect Dis 181 Suppl 2, S322-330CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

2Adler, J. and Zickl, R. (1969) Winter vomiting disease. J Infect Dis 119, 668-673CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

3Dolin, R. et al. (1972) Biological properties of Norwalk agent of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 140, 578-583CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

4Dolin, R. et al. (1971) Transmission of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis to volunteers by oral administration of stool filtrates. J Infect Dis 123, 307-312CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

5Kapikian, A.Z. et al. (1973) Density in cesium chloride of the 27 nm “8FIIa” particle associated with acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis: determination by ultra-centrifugation and immune electron microscopy. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 142, 874-877CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

6Kapikian, A., Estes, M.K. and Chanock, R.M. (1996) Norwalk group of viruses. In Fields Virology (3rd edn) (Fields, B.N. et al. , eds), pp. 783-810, Lippincott-Raven, New YorkGoogle Scholar

7Zheng, D.P. et al. (2006) Norovirus classification and proposed strain nomenclature. Virology 346, 312-323Google Scholar

8Parrino, T.A. et al. (1977) Clinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent. N Engl J Med 297, 86-89CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

9Thornhill, T.S. et al. (1975) Pattern of shedding of the Norwalk particle in stools during experimentally induced gastroenteritis in volunteers as determined by immune electron microscopy. J Infect Dis 132, 28-34CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

10Wyatt, R.G. et al. (1974) Comparison of three agents of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis by cross-challenge in volunteers. J Infect Dis 129, 709-714CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

11Gallimore, C.I. et al. (2004) Diversity of enteric viruses detected in patients with gastroenteritis in a tertiary referral paediatric hospital. J Med Virol 73, 443-449CrossRef Google Scholar

12Kaufman, S.S. et al. (2005) Characteristics of human calicivirus enteritis in intestinal transplant recipients. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 40, 328-333CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

13Simon, A. et al. (2006) Norovirus outbreak in a pediatric oncology unit. Scand J Gastroenterol 41, 693-699CrossRef Google Scholar

14Mattner, F. et al. (2006) Risk groups for clinical complications of norovirus infections: an outbreak investigation. Clin Microbiol Infect 12, 69-74CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

15Jiang, X. et al. (1996) Outbreaks of gastroenteritis in elderly nursing homes and retirement facilities associated with human caliciviruses. J Med Virol 50, 335-3413.0.CO;2-9>CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

16Green, K.Y. et al. (2002) A predominant role for Norwalk-like viruses as agents of epidemic gastroenteritis in Maryland nursing homes for the elderly. J Infect Dis 185, 133-146CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

17Tsugawa, T. et al. (2006) Virological, serological, and clinical features of an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis due to recombinant genogroup II norovirus in an infant home. J Clin Microbiol 44, 177-182Google Scholar

18Isakbaeva, E.T. et al. (2005) Norovirus and child care: challenges in outbreak control. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24, 561-563Google Scholar

19Isakbaeva, E.T. et al. (2005) Norovirus transmission on cruise ship. Emerg Infect Dis 11, 154-158CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

20Koopmans, M. (2005) Food-borne norovirus outbreaks: a nuisance or more than that? Wien Klin Wochenschr 117, 789-791CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

21Morioka, S. et al. (2006) A food-borne norovirus outbreak at a primary school in Wakayama Prefecture. Jpn J Infect Dis 59, 205-207CrossRef Google Scholar

22Papadopoulos, V.P. et al. (2006) A gastroenteritis outbreak due to Norovirus infection in Xanthi, Northern Greece: management and public health consequences. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis 15, 27-30Google Scholar PubMed

23Podewils, L.J. et al. (2006) Outbreak of norovirus illness associated with a swimming pool. Epidemiol Infect 134, 1-7Google Scholar

24Sistrom, M.G. and Hale, P.J. (2006) Outbreak investigations: community participation and role of community and public health nurses. Public Health Nurs 23, 256-263CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

25Takkinen, J. (2006) Recent norovirus outbreaks on river and seagoing cruise ships in Europe. Euro Surveill 11, E0606152Google Scholar

26Thornton, A.C., Jennings-Conklin, K.S. and McCormick, M.I. (2004) Noroviruses: agents in outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis. Disaster Manag Response 2, 4-9Google Scholar

27Tseng, F.C. et al. (2007) Molecular epidemiology of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks in North Carolina, United States: 1995–2000. J Med Virol 79, 84-91Google Scholar

28Vainio, K. and Myrmel, M. (2006) Molecular Epidemiology of norovirus outbreaks in Norway during 2000 to 2005 and comparison of four norovirus real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assays. J Clin Microbiol 44, 3695-3702CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

29Waters, A. et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of norovirus strains circulating in Ireland from 2003 to 2004. Epidemiol Infect 134, 917-925CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

30Greenberg, H.B. et al. (1979) Antibodies to viral gastroenteritis viruses in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 76, 349-350CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

31Kapikian, A., Yolken, R. and Greenberg, H. (1979) Gastroenteritis viruses. In Diagnostic Procedures for Viral, Rickettsial, and Chlamydial Infections 5th edn (Lennette, E.Schmidt, N., eds), pp. 927-995, American Public Health Association, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar

32Black, R.E. et al. (1982) Acquisition of serum antibody to Norwalk Virus and rotavirus and relation to diarrhea in a longitudinal study of young children in rural Bangladesh. J Infect Dis 145, 483-489CrossRef Google Scholar

33Ryder, R.W. et al. (1985) Evidence of immunity induced by naturally acquired rotavirus and Norwalk virus infection on two remote Panamanian islands. J Infect Dis 151, 99-105CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

34Straub, T. et al. (2007) In vitro cell culture infectivity assay for human noroviruses. Emerg Infect Dis 13, 8Google Scholar

35Cheetham, S. et al. (2006) Pathogenesis of a genogroup II human norovirus in gnotobiotic pigs. J Virol 80, 10372-10381CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

36Jiang, X. et al. (1990) Norwalk virus genome cloning and characterization. Science 250, 1580-1583Google Scholar

37Matson, D.O. et al. (1995) Molecular characterization of a human calicivirus with sequence relationships closer to animal caliciviruses than other known human caliciviruses. J Med Virol 45, 215-222CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

38Matson, D.O. et al. (1996) Partial characterization of the genome of nine animal caliciviruses. Arch Virol 141, 2443-2456CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

39Lew, J.F. et al. (1994) Identification of minireovirus as a Norwalk-like virus in pediatric patients with gastroenteritis. J Virol 68, 3391-3396CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

40Lew, J.F. et al. (1994) Molecular characterization of Hawaii virus and other Norwalk-like viruses: evidence for genetic polymorphism among human caliciviruses. J Infect Dis 170, 535-542CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

41Lew, J.F. et al. (1994) Molecular characterization and expression of the capsid protein of a Norwalk-like virus recovered from a Desert Shield troop with gastroenteritis. Virology 200, 319-325Google Scholar

42Lambden, P.R. et al. (1993) Sequence and genome organization of a human small round-structured (Norwalk-like) virus. Science 259, 516-519Google Scholar

43Jiang, X. et al. (1995) Study of Norwalk-related viruses in Mexican children. J Med Virol 47, 309-316Google Scholar

44Jiang, X. et al. (1999) Expression and characterization of Sapporo-like human calicivirus capsid proteins in baculovirus. J Virol Methods 78, 81-91Google Scholar

45Jiang, X. et al. (1992) Expression, self-assembly, and antigenicity of the Norwalk virus capsid protein. J Virol 66, 6527-6532CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

46Jiang, X. et al. (1995) Expression, self-assembly, and antigenicity of a snow mountain agent-like calicivirus capsid protein. J Clin Microbiol 33, 1452-1455CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

47Green, K.Y. et al. (1993) Comparison of the reactivities of baculovirus-expressed recombinant Norwalk virus capsid antigen with those of the native Norwalk virus antigen in serologic assays and some epidemiologic observations. J Clin Microbiol 31, 2185-2191Google Scholar

48White, L.J. et al. (1996) Attachment and entry of recombinant Norwalk virus capsids to cultured human and animal cell lines. J Virol 70, 6589-6597CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

49Marionneau, S. et al. (2002) Norwalk virus binds to histo-blood group antigens present on gastroduodenal epithelial cells of secretor individuals. Gastroenterology 122, 1967-1977CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

50Hutson, A.M. et al. (2003) Norwalk virus-like particle hemagglutination by binding to h histo-blood group antigens. J Virol 77, 405-415CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

51Huang, P. et al. (2005) Norovirus and histo-blood group antigens: demonstration of a wide spectrum of strain specificities and classification of two major binding groups among multiple binding patterns. J Virol 79, 6714-6722CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

52Huang, P. et al. (2003) Noroviruses bind to human ABO, Lewis, and Secretor histo-blood group antigens: identification of 4 distinct strain-specific patterns. J Infect Dis 188, 19-31CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

53Harrington, P.R. et al. (2004) Norovirus Capture with histo-blood group antigens reveals novel virus-ligand interactions. J Virol 78, 3035-3045Google Scholar

54Harrington, P.R. et al. (2002) Binding of Norwalk virus-like particles to ABH histo-blood group antigens is blocked by antisera from infected human volunteers or experimentally vaccinated mice. J Virol 76, 12335-12343Google Scholar

55Tamura, M. et al. (2000) Interaction of recombinant norwalk virus particles with the 105-kilodalton cellular binding protein, a candidate receptor molecule for virus attachment. J Virol 74, 11589-11597CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

56Tamura, M. et al. (2004) Genogroup II noroviruses efficiently bind to heparan sulfate proteoglycan associated with the cellular membrane. J Virol 78, 3817-3826CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

57Ruvoen-Clouet, N. et al. (2000) Binding of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus to antigens of the ABH histo-blood group family. J Virol 74, 11950-11954CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

58Lindesmith, L. et al. (2003) Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection. Nat Med 9, 548-553CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

59Hutson, A.M. et al. (2002) Norwalk virus infection and disease is associated with ABO histo-blood group type. J Infect Dis 185, 1335-1337Google Scholar

60Hutson, A.M. et al. (2005) Norwalk virus infection associates with secretor status genotyped from sera. J Med Virol 77, 116-120CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

61Tan, M. and Jiang, X. (2005) Norovirus and its histo-blood group antigen receptors: an answer to a historical puzzle. Trends Microbiol 13, 285-293CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

62Rockx, B.H. et al. (2005) Association of histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to norovirus infections. J Infect Dis 191, 749-754CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

63Fretz, R. et al. (2005) Risk factors for infections with Norovirus gastrointestinal illness in Switzerland. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 24, 256-261CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

64Meyer, E. et al. (2004) Nosocomial outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis and investigation of ABO histo-blood group type in infected staff and patients. J Hosp Infect 56, 64-66CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

65Hennessy, E.P. et al. (2003) Norwalk Virus Infection and Disease Is Associated with ABO Histo-Blood Group Type. J Infect Dis 188, 176-177CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

66Dai, Y.C. et al. (2004) Seroprevalence of antibodies against noroviruses among students in a Chinese military medical university. J Clin Microbiol 42, 4615-4619CrossRef Google Scholar

67Morrow, A.L. et al. (2005) Human-milk glycans that inhibit pathogen binding protect breast-feeding infants against infectious diarrhea. J Nutr 135, 1304-1307CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

68Marionneau, S. et al. (2005) Influence of the combined ABO, FUT2, and FUT3 polymorphism on susceptibility to Norwalk virus attachment. J Infect Dis 192, 1071-1077Google Scholar

69Jiang, X. et al. (2004) Human milk contains elements that block binding of noroviruses to human histo-blood group antigens in saliva. J Infect Dis 190, 1850-1859CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

70Ruvoen-Clouet, N. et al. (2006) Bile-salt-stimulated lipase and mucins from milk of ‘secretor’ mothers inhibit the binding of Norwalk virus capsids to their carbohydrate ligands. Biochem J 393, 627-634CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

71Chakravarty, S. et al. (2005) Evolutionary trace residues in noroviruses: importance in receptor binding, antigenicity, virion assembly, and strain diversity. J Virol 79, 554-568CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

72Prasad, B.V. et al. (1999) X-ray crystallographic structure of the Norwalk virus capsid. Science 286, 287-290Google Scholar

73Prasad, B.V. et al. (1994) Three-dimensional structure of baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsids. J Virol 68, 5117-5125Google Scholar

74Tan, M., Meller, J. and Jiang, X. (2006) C-terminal arginine cluster is essential for receptor binding of norovirus capsid protein. J Virol 80, 7322-7331Google Scholar

75Tan, M. and Jiang, X. (2005) The p domain of norovirus capsid protein forms a subviral particle that binds to histo-blood group antigen receptors. J Virol 79, 14017-14030CrossRef Google Scholar

76Tan, M. et al. (2003) Mutations within the P2 domain of norovirus capsid affect binding to human histo-blood group antigens: evidence for a binding pocket. J Virol 77, 12562-12571Google Scholar

77Tan, M., Hegde, R.S. and Jiang, X. (2004) The P domain of norovirus capsid protein forms dimer and binds to histo-blood group antigen receptors. J Virol 78, 6233-6242CrossRef Google Scholar

78Le Pendu, J. (2004) Histo-blood group antigen and human milk oligosaccharides: genetic polymorphism and risk of infectious diseases. Adv Exp Med Biol 554, 135-143Google Scholar

79Ravn, V. and Dabelsteen, E. (2000) Tissue distribution of histo-blood group antigens. Apmis 108, 1-28CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

80Marionneau, S. et al. (2001) ABH and Lewis histo-blood group antigens, a model for the meaning of oligosaccharide diversity in the face of a changing world. Biochimie 83, 565-573CrossRef Google Scholar

81Tan, M. et al. (2004) E. coli-expressed recombinant norovirus capsid proteins maintain authentic antigenicity and receptor binding capability. J Med Virol 74, 641-649Google Scholar

82Lindesmith, L. et al. (2005) Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge. J Virol 79, 2900-2909Google Scholar

83Chen, R. et al. (2006) X-ray structure of a native calicivirus: structural insights into antigenic diversity and host specificity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 8048-8053Google Scholar

84Chen, R. et al. (2004) Inter- and intragenus structural variations in caliciviruses and their functional implications. J Virol 78, 6469-6479Google Scholar

85Bertolotti-Ciarlet, A. et al. (2002) Structural requirements for the assembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. J Virol 76, 4044-4055Google Scholar

86Ausar, S.F. et al. (2006) Conformational stability and disassembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. Effect of pH and temperature. J Biol Chem 281, 19478-19488CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

87Greenberg, H.B. et al. (1981) Proteins of Norwalk virus. J Virol 37, 994-999CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

88Hardy, M.E. et al. (1995) Specific proteolytic cleavage of recombinant Norwalk virus capsid protein. J Virol 69, 1693-1698CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

89Lochridge, V.P. et al. (2005) Epitopes in the P2 domain of norovirus VP1 recognized by monoclonal antibodies that block cell interactions. J Gen Virol 86, 2799-2806CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

90Cao, S. et al. (2007) Structural basis for the recognition of blood group trisaccharides by norovirus. J Virol 81, 5949-5957CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

91Newburg, D.S., Ruiz-Palacios, G.M. and Morrow, A.L. (2005) Human milk glycans protect infants against enteric pathogens. Annu Rev Nutr 25, 37-58Google Scholar

92Newburg, D.S. et al. (2004) Innate protection conferred by fucosylated oligosaccharides of human milk against diarrhea in breastfed infants. Glycobiology 14, 253-263CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

93Newburg, D.S. et al. (1995) Human milk glycosaminoglycans inhibit HIV glycoprotein gp120 binding to its host cell CD4 receptor. J Nutr 125, 419-424Google Scholar PubMed

94Newburg, D.S. (2005) Innate immunity and human milk. J Nutr 135, 1308-1312Google Scholar

95Newburg, D.S. (1999) Human milk glycoconjugates that inhibit pathogens. Curr Med Chem 6, 117-127Google Scholar

96Jiang, X. et al. (2004) Human milk contains elements that block binding of noroviruses to histo-blood group antigens in saliva. Adv Exp Med Biol 554, 447-450CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

97Morrow, A.L. et al. (2004) Human milk oligosaccharides are associated with protection against diarrhea in breast-fed infants. J Pediatr 145, 297-303Google Scholar

98Kunz, C. et al. (2000) Oligosaccharides in human milk: structural, functional, and metabolic aspects. Annu Rev Nutr 20, 699-722Google Scholar

99Greenberg, H.B. et al. (1979) Prevalence of antibody to the Norwalk virus in various countries. Infect Immun 26, 270-273CrossRef Google Scholar

100Kapikian, A.Z. (1996) Overview of viral gastroenteritis. Arch Virol Suppl 12, 7-19CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

101Blacklow, N.R. and Cukor, G. (1982) Norwalk virus: a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. Am J Public Health 72, 1321-1303CrossRef Google Scholar

102Baron, R.C. et al. (1984) Serological responses among teenagers after natural exposure to Norwalk virus. J Infect Dis 150, 531-534Google Scholar

103Blacklow, N.R., Herrmann, J.E. and Cubitt, W.D. (1987) Immunobiology of Norwalk virus. Ciba Found Symp 128, 144-161Google Scholar

104Kappus, K.D. et al. (1982) An outbreak of Norwalk gastroenteritis associated with swimming in a pool and secondary person-to-person transmission. Am J Epidemiol 116, 834-839Google Scholar

105Farkas, T. et al. (2003) Homologous versus heterologous immune responses to norwalk-like viruses among crew members after acute gastroenteritis outbreaks on 2 US navy vessels. J Infect Dis 187, 187-193CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

106Jiang, X. (2003) Development of serological and molecular tests for the diagnosis of calicivirus infections. In Viral Gastroenteritis (Desselberger, U. and Gray, J., eds), pp. 505-522, Elsevier Science B. V., AmsterdamGoogle Scholar

107Jiang, X. et al. (1996) Genetic and antigenic diversity of human caliciviruses (HuCVs) using RT-PCR and new EIAs. Arch Virol Suppl 12, 251-262Google Scholar PubMed

108Green, J. et al. (2000) Capsid protein diversity among Norwalk-like viruses. Virus Genes 20, 227-236Google Scholar

109Kitamoto, N. et al. (2002) Cross-reactivity among several recombinant calicivirus virus-like particles (VLPs) with monoclonal antibodies obtained from mice immunized orally with one type of VLP. J Clin Microbiol 40, 2459-2465CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

110Hansman, G.S. et al. (2006) Genetic and antigenic diversity among noroviruses. J Gen Virol 87, 909-919CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

111Bridger, J.C. (1980) Detection by electron microscopy of caliciviruses, astroviruses and rotavirus-like particles in the faeces of piglets with diarrhoea. Vet Rec 107, 532-533Google Scholar PubMed

112Dastjerdi, A.M. et al. (1999) The bovine Newbury agent-2 is genetically more closely related to human SRSVs than to animal caliciviruses. Virology 254, 1-5Google Scholar

113Dastjerdi, A.M., Snodgrass, D.R. and Bridger, J.C. (2000) Characterisation of the bovine enteric calici-like virus, Newbury agent 1. FEMS Microbiol Lett 192, 125-131CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

114Oliver, S.L. et al. (2003) Molecular characterization of bovine enteric caliciviruses: a distinct third genogroup of noroviruses (norwalk-like viruses) unlikely to be of risk to humans. J Virol 77, 2789-2798CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

115Deng, Y. et al. (2003) Studies of epidemiology and seroprevalence of bovine noroviruses in Germany. J Clin Microbiol 41, 2300-2305CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

116Han, M.G. et al. (2004) Genetic recombination between two genotypes of genogroup III bovine noroviruses (BoNVs) and capsid sequence diversity among BoNVs and Nebraska-like bovine enteric caliciviruses. J Clin Microbiol 42, 5214-5224Google Scholar

117Liu, B.L. et al. (1999) Molecular characterization of a bovine enteric calicivirus: relationship to the Norwalk-like viruses. J Virol 73, 819-825CrossRef Google Scholar

118Wise, A.G. et al. (2004) Molecular characterization of noroviruses detected in diarrheic stools of Michigan and Wisconsin dairy calves: circulation of two distinct subgroups. Virus Res 100, 165-177Google Scholar

119Oliver, S.L. et al. (2004) A chimeric bovine enteric calicivirus: evidence for genomic recombination in genogroup III of the Norovirus genus of the Caliciviridae. Virology 326, 231-239Google Scholar

120Yamamoto, F. and Yamamoto, M. (2001) Molecular genetic basis of porcine histo-blood group AO system. Blood 97, 3308-3310Google Scholar

121Backer, A.E. et al. (1997) Biochemical and enzymatic characterization of blood group ABH and related histo-blood group glycosphingolipids in the epithelial cells of porcine small intestine. Glycobiology 7, 943-953Google Scholar

122Thorven, M. et al. (2005) A homozygous nonsense mutation (428G–>A) in the human secretor (FUT2) gene provides resistance to symptomatic norovirus (GGII) infections. J Virol 79, 15351-15355Google Scholar

123Tian, P. et al. (2006) Norovirus binds to blood group A-like antigens in oyster gastrointestinal cells. Lett Appl Microbiol 43, 645-651Google Scholar

124Le Guyader, F. et al. (2006) Norwalk virus-specific binding to oyster digestive tissues. Emerg Infect Dis 12, 931-936Google Scholar

125Feng, X. and Jiang, X. (2007) Library screen for inhibitors targeting norovirus binding to histo-blood group antigen receptors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51, 324-331Google Scholar

126LoBue, A.D. et al. (2006) Multivalent norovirus vaccines induce strong mucosal and systemic blocking antibodies against multiple strains. Vaccine 24, 5220-5234Google Scholar

127Zhang, Y.L. et al. (2006) Trapping Norovirus by glycosylated hydrogels: a potential oral antiviral drug. ChemMedChem 1, 1361-1366CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

128Tacket, C.O. et al. (2003) Humoral, mucosal, and cellular immune responses to oral Norwalk virus-like particles in volunteers. Clin Immunol 108, 241-247Google Scholar

129Tacket, C.O. et al. (2000) Human immune responses to a novel norwalk virus vaccine delivered in transgenic potatoes. J Infect Dis 182, 302-305Google Scholar

130Mason, H.S. et al. (1996) Expression of Norwalk virus capsid protein in transgenic tobacco and potato and its oral immunogenicity in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93, 5335-5340CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

131Ball, J.M. et al. (1996) Recombinant Norwalk virus-like particles as an oral vaccine. Arch Virol Suppl 12, 243-249Google Scholar

132Kumar, S. et al. (2007) Presence of a surface-exposed loop facilitates trypsinization of particles of sinsiro virus, a genogroup II.3 norovirus. J Virol 81, 1119-1128Google Scholar

133White, L.J., Hardy, M.E. and Estes, M.K. (1997) Biochemical characterization of a smaller form of recombinant Norwalk virus capsids assembled in insect cells. J Virol 71, 8066-8072CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

134Hutson, A.M., Atmar, R.L. and Estes, M.K. (2004) Norovirus disease: changing epidemiology and host susceptibility factors. Trends Microbiol 12, 279-287CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Article contents

Norovirus–host interaction: implications for disease control and prevention

Abstract

Access options

References

References

Further reading, resources and contacts

This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref.

Article contents

Norovirus–host interaction: implications for disease control and prevention

Abstract

Access options

References

References

Further reading, resources and contacts

Save article to Kindle

Save article to Dropbox

Save article to Google Drive

Reply to: Submit a response

Your details

You have entered the maximum number of contributors

Conflicting interests