Because green infrastructure used for urban storm-water management also serves larger ecosystem services functions (such as providing habitat, recharging aquifers, and minimizing erosion), proponents of these management strategies tend also to value these ancillary functions in making a case for their use when compared to conventional urban storm-water collection and detention approaches. Recent research, however, suggests that green infrastructure strategies are cost-effective when compared to conventional storm-water management approaches, even when evaluated in terms of their direct costs and savings over their useful lives. Problems with using more indirect methods of valuation include unnecessary complexity, analytical asymmetry, and distributional distortions. A case can therefore be made that assessing only the direct economic savings of green infrastructure over conventional storm-water infrastructure may be more persuasive for public policy purposes than valuing the more speculative indirect benefits in cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses of green compared to conventional storm-water management strategies.

Environmental Practice 12:357–365 (2010)

Collaborative environmental governance scholars have increasingly recognized the need to engage Indigenous peoples in environmental decision-making processes. Barriers to doing so effectively are well known. Recognizing these barriers, some scholars have discussed recommendations from practice in regions where Indigenous lands have been colonized and where there are complex environmental problems. This article explores assumptions regarding Indigenous engagement in the practice of collaborative environmental governance and contextualizes these assumptions relative to the perspectives of Indigenous peoples. Concrete advice for environmental practitioners is offered that builds on findings from a previously published systematic review and empirical multi-case study of governance for water in British Columbia, Canada. Recommendations for practice offered here include the following: approach or involve Indigenous peoples as self-determining nations rather than as one of many collaborative stakeholders or participants; identify and engage with existing or intended environmental governance processes and assertions of self-determination by Indigenous nations; create opportunities for relationship building between Indigenous peoples and policy or governance practitioners; choose venues and processes of decision making that reflect Indigenous rather than Eurocentric venues and processes; provide resources to Indigenous nations to level the playing field in terms of capacity for collaboration or for policy reform decision making; and find ways to support Indigenous nations in their own continued environmental decision making and self-determination.

Environmental Practice 00: 1–11 (2015)

Potential visual impact on coastal lands has emerged as a major concern in the development of offshore wind facilities in the United States and Europe. Optimal siting of offshore facilities requires accurate knowledge of the relationship between distance and the visibility of wind turbines. Past assessments of offshore wind turbine visibility were based on smaller turbines and facilities in use at the time and underestimate visibility for current projects, which use more and larger larger turbines. This study is a preliminary assessment of the visibility of offshore wind facilities in the United Kingdom. Study objectives included identifying the maximum distances the facilities could be seen in both daytime and nighttime views and assessing the effect of distance on visual contrasts associated with the facilities. Results showed that small to moderately sized facilities were visible to the unaided eye at distances greater than 42 km [26 miles (mi)], with turbine blade movement visible up to 39 km (24 mi). At night, aerial hazard navigation lighting was visible at distances greater than 39 km (24 mi). The observed wind facilities were judged to be a major focus of visual attention at distances up to 16 km (10 mi), were noticeable to casual observers at distances of almost 29 km (18 mi), and were visible with extended or concentrated viewing at distances beyond 40 km (25 mi).

Environmental Practice 15:33–49 (2013)

This article proposes a framework for addressing societal costs—psychological, social, community, and human health risks and uncertainties—associated with natural gas extraction and production from tight shale, tight sand, or coal-bed methane formations that use hydraulic fracturing processes. The US Environmental Protection Agency's 2011–14 study of hydraulic fracturing and the risks posed to drinking-water resources is used as a case study of how such a framework could be applied. This report also discusses some of the current regulatory and institutional barriers that make incorporation of societal costs into science-based and proactive decisions regarding unconventional oil and gas exploration and production in the United States more difficult and recommends some general steps for getting past those barriers.

Environmental Practice 14:1–14 (2012)

Utilizing unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) can be an efficient and repeatable means of surveying wildlife, especially waterbirds. As with any technology in its infancy, case studies offer opportunities to explore drawbacks and limitations, both anticipated and unanticipated. We examined the relationship between flight altitude and camera focal length on bird identification. We then conducted a post-hoc analysis to examine the effect of flight altitude on bird flushing behavior. We flew UAS missions at three locations in California and Nevada to assess the use of UAS for censusing non-nesting waterbirds. A minimum pixel resolution of approximately 5 mm was needed be able to identify most waterbird species from imagery. Sensors needed to be carefully calibrated in order to obtain images of sufficient quality to identify waterbirds over open water. Our results suggest that gas-powered UAS may result in increased rates of flushing at low flight altitudes for some waterbirds. With careful design of surveys and processing workflow, UAS show promise for censusing and monitoring waterbirds.

Environmental Practice 17: 201–210 (2015)

Throughout the world, the growth of artisanal or small-scale mining has resulted in serious mercury pollution issues. While these problems are well studied in much of the world, little has been written about the state of affairs in the People's Republic of China. It is vital to understand how the situation has evolved in China to determine if China's methods of dealing with these environmental and health problems could be applicable to other parts of the world, or if techniques and solutions developed outside of China could be used by the Chinese. Artisanal mining employs about 6 million people in China, who often work in deadly conditions, and contributes to environmental degradation on a huge scale. Chinese artisanal mercury, coal, and gold miners emit hundreds of tonnes of mercury into the environment annually. Artisanal gold miners often use muller mills, which amalgamate whole ores and thus increase mercury contamination in the tailings; more than 14 parts mercury can be lost per part of gold recovered. Many operations do not use retorts, leading to mercury vapor contamination. In 1997, artisanal and small-scale mining emitted approximately 381 tonnes of mercury, of which 226 tonnes were due to gold mining. The implementation of simple measures, such as providing communities with accessible education regarding environmental issues, encouraging the use of retorts, and discouraging the amalgamation of whole ores, would help to mitigate these problems.

Currently, a number of different federal, state, and local definitions of brownfields are in use. I argue here that two types of definitions are required. The first is a broad, universally agreed upon conceptual definition that will permit the creation of brownfield inventories for resource allocation and federal funding purposes and will inform individuals of potential health hazards in their communities. The second type of definition, which assumes the underlying conceptual definition, specifies eligibility qualifications for particular programs. The conceptual definition should contain terms that are unambiguous, and should allow policy makers and practitioners wide latitude in addressing the dual nature of brownfields as both environmental and economic problems. A definition satisfying these criteria is provided in the 2001 Brownfields Revitalization and Environmental Restoration Act. In this article, I trace the evolution of the dual nature of brownfields and offer examples of the various meanings assigned to the term by state and federal entities. I then examine key distinctions made in various definitions and assess their appropriateness as components of a universal conceptual definition. Such a definition must remain true to the environmental and economic development concerns that gave rise to the term. Only the definitional elements central to these concerns should be included — i.e., the presence or potential presence of contamination and the complications this environmental condition presents for redeveloping a site. Further specifications should be relegated to eligibility definitions that designate legal and programmatic qualifications. The analysis indicates that the conceptual definition provided in the 2001 Act is superior to other definitions in use and should be adopted at all levels of government.

While much of the environmental justice literature has focused on exposure to environmental contaminants, this article argues that access to environmental goods should be explored, as well. We do this by looking at the rates paid for drinking and wastewater infrastructure in the United States (US). Although US residents, in aggregate, pay very little for water and sewer (around 1% of household income), the rate varies significantly by place (with Chicago residents paying roughly one fourth of the rates of residents in Atlanta, for instance). We ask whether particular groups may disproportionately pay higher rates. Using census data, we compare the cost of water and sewer across counties in Michigan and find tremendous disparity in reported expenditure. We then use multivariate regression analysis to investigate the relationship among income, urbanicity, race, and cost of water and sewer. Our findings indicate that a higher reported cost of water and sewer is associated most strongly with minority racial status. This results from postindustrial divestment and subsequent depopulation of particular urban areas. As a result, decreased demand (fewer households remaining in the city) actually increases prices (per remaining household), since water infrastructure costs are fixed, and this phenomenon disproportionately disadvantages people of color—who make up the majority of the great industrial cities.

Environmental Practice 13:386–395 (2011)

The bioaccumulation of methylmercury in fish is a complex process affected by many site-specific environmental factors. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) recently recommended changing the basis for expressing the ambient water quality criterion for mercury from an aqueous concentration to a measure of the methylmercury concentration in fish. This change would make the regulation of mercury in surface waters a site-specific exercise in which fish-based bioaccumulation factors (BAF; the ratio of mercury concentration in fish to the concentration of mercury in water) are used to calculate aqueous concentration limits for total mercury. These limits would then be used to allocate mercury loading among various point and nonpoint sources and guide regulatory actions. In order for this approach to succeed, it is critical that the site-specific BAFs and methylmercury:total mercury conversion factors be independent of aqueous total mercury concentration (HgT). We investigated this relationship by measuring aqueous methylmercury and HgTs and mercury in fish in ecologically similar warm-water streams in the southeastern United States. Bioaccumulation factors based on HgT in water were found to decrease with increasing HgT, primarily as a consequence of the reduction in the ratio of aqueous methylmercury to total mercury with increasing HgT. Methylmercury-based BAFs did not vary as a function of HgT. The implication of this relationship is that site-specific determination of aqueous HgT limits at contaminated sites may use BAFs that would be underestimates of the appropriate BAFs to describe mercury bioaccumulation in the system after mercury inputs have been reduced. In such cases, regulatory limits set using site-specific BAFs might not achieve their intended purpose of reducing mercury contamination in fish to acceptable concentrations.

The National Association of Environmental Professionals (NAEP) and other constituencies have advocated the development of core competency guidelines for environmental educational programs for many years. Despite the high level of interest, no consensus has emerged on program identity that could lead to their development. The lack of a clearly defined identity has threatened program legitimacy and raised concerns about how well these programs are preparing students for entry into the environmental profession. To address these concerns, the Council of Environmental Deans and Directors, a group of academic environmental program leaders operating under the auspices of the National Council for Science and the Environment, launched a study to learn more about extant program curricula and investigate the potential for reaching consensus on core competence areas. In this article, we review selected findings from the study to date and discuss their implications for the development of core competency criteria. Despite differing perspectives on curriculum design, our research indicates that programs share a common vision of program identity congruent with sustainability. A review of employer and employee surveys and reports from environmental professionals also point toward participation in and understanding of sustainability processes as increasingly important components of practice. Taken together, these findings indicate that sustainability could serve as an overarching paradigm to inform the development of core knowledge and skill competency recommendations for curriculum design.

Environmental Practice 12:76–86 (2010)

Environmental justice strives for equal access for all citizens to a healthy environment, and refers to unequal exposure to environmental contamination due to locational variables. Human health is often compromised by this contaminant exposure. “Communities of concern” are frequently communities populated by people of color and/or low income. In addition to air, water, and soil pollution, specific problems include degraded structures, poor schools, unemployment, high crime, and poor roads and transportation systems. This article addresses some of these issues and makes policy recommendations for business leaders, local government leaders, and those otherwise responsible for enhancing the quality of life in affected communities.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories are becoming a common measure of environmental impact and sustainability for institutions. The University of Illinois in Chicago (UIC) prepared a GHG inventory for fiscal years 2004–2008. UIC conducted a commuter survey to obtain data regarding the commuting habits of its faculty, staff, and students. In fiscal year 2008, UIC's carbon footprint was not significantly higher than the 2004 emissions (275,000 vs. 273,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents, respectively). For 2008, the largest source of emissions was buildings (83%), followed by commuting (16%) and waste (1%). When compared to 85 other doctorate-granting universities, UIC's gross emissions per square foot (21.4%) are lower than average. The variation in the emissions over the five years studied is largely influenced by the amount of electricity purchased and the mix of sources of that electricity (i.e., nuclear vs. coal). Conducting a baseline GHG inventory can serve as a measure of progress toward more sustainable practices within an institution and as a tool for developing goals, strategies and policies to reduce emissions.

Environmental Practice 12:35–47 (2010)

despite a widespread consensus that reducing exposure to environmental risks is desirable, decision making often requires trade–offs. these trade–offs may focus on the time and resources needed to reduce environmental risks. they may involve increasing risks in one locality in order to promote a more significant reduction in risk in another. or, decreases in one type of risk may necessitate an increase in another form of risk.

High-volume horizontal hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is a new technology that poses many threats to biodiversity. Species that have small geographic ranges and a large overlap with the extensively industrializing Marcellus and Utica shale-gas region are vulnerable to environmental impacts of fracking, including salinization and forest fragmentation. We reviewed the ranges and ecological requirements of 15 species (1 mammal, 8 salamanders, 2 fishes, 1 butterfly, and 3 vascular plants), with 36%–100% range overlaps with the Marcellus-Utica region to determine their susceptibility to shale-gas activities. Most of these species are sensitive to forest fragmentation and loss or to degradation of water quality, two notable impacts of fracking. Moreover, most are rare or poorly studied and should be targeted for research and management to prevent their reduction, extirpation, or extinction from human-caused impacts.

Environmental Practice 14:1–12 (2012)

Unprecedented levels of global bottled water consumption present a major challenge for the environment and water conservation initiatives. Educational institutions are in a unique position to promote conservation behavior by signaling pro-environmental norms. To decrease disposable bottled water consumption on campus, Princeton University instituted an innovative “Drink Local” program in 2009. The program provides reusable water bottles to all incoming students and we analyze the program’s impact here by drawing on behavioral and social influence research. In particular, we hypothesized that by signaling that the desired “prototypical” behavior of Princeton students should be “sustainable,” students would be less likely to consume bottled water on one hand, and more likely to offer normative support for a campus bottled water ban on the other. Results from a quasi-experiment involving over 1,300 students confirm our hypotheses; students who received the reusable Drink Local bottles upon arrival to Princeton are significantly less likely to drink disposable bottled water and more likely to support a campus-wide bottled water ban. These results are promising for educational institutions who wish to promote water conservation behavior on campus and beyond.

Environmental Practice 18: 116–122 (2016)

The assessment of cumulative impacts is one of the most difficult tasks a NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act) practitioner faces when preparing an Environmental Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement, and it recently has become an increasing focus area of legal challenges. Historically, federal agencies have a very poor track record in this litigation. This research examines 25 recent judicial opinions involving challenges to various NEPA documents' cumulative impact analyses, from the federal Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. Challengers were victorious on their claims of inadequate analysis in 60% of the cases decided in the 10-year analysis period. In recent years, the success rate for challengers has risen even higher, to victories in eight of 11 cases (72%). The main reasons federal agencies have lost these court challenges is because they failed to present any cumulative impact analysis whatsoever in their NEPA document; they left out obvious past, present, or reasonably foreseeable future actions; or they provided undocumented assertions that their projects would not cause any cumulative impacts. Four key lessons for practitioners emerge from the results: (1) Make sure to include a discussion of cumulative impacts for each resource and include all past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions; (2) Do not make unsubstantiated claims about cumulative impacts; (3) Assessments do not have to be perfect but should be thorough and based on data and explained rationales; and (4) Do not tie assessments solely to programmatic or non-NEPA documents.

The development of large-scale shale gas production has been described as a game-changer for the US energy market and has generated interest in expanding the use of natural gas in sectors such as electricity generation and transportation. This development has been made possible by improvements in drilling technologies—specifically utilizing hydraulic fracturing in conjunction with horizontal drilling—that have enabled the production of natural gas from unconventional formations. However, the environmental implications of natural gas production and its use have been called into question. Environmental impacts associated with shale gas development can occur at the global and local levels and include impacts to climate, local air quality, water availability, water quality, seismic events, and the local community. A variety of technologies and practices are available to operators to reduce these impacts. Policies are currently under development at the federal, state, and local level to mitigate environmental impacts. In this document, we discuss the technologies involved in shale gas production, the potential abiotic impacts of shale gas production with an emphasis on air and water issues, and the practices and policies currently being developed and implemented to mitigate these impacts.

Environmental Practice 14:249–261 (2012)

Emission and effluent trading programs are increasingly being advocated for the nation's air and water quality programs. However, important distinctions must be drawn between credit and allowance trading, based on how much decision-making authority is transferred from regulators to dischargers. Credit trading programs are extensions of command-and-control regulation. Allowance trading programs, like markets, decentralize decisions on the means to control discharges and the location of that control. A review of existing trading programs finds allowance trading programs stimulate more aggressive pollution prevention behavior and result in lower compliance costs than credit trading.

Communities historically have had a difficult time understanding the scope and breadth of their brownfield situation. This lack of information has resulted in part from property owner reluctance to reveal contamination potential because of liability fears. Failure to inform creates a debilitating stigma effect, where properties and entire neighborhoods are avoided because of suspected but unknown contamination potential. In this article, I present a method with which communities can address the brownfield information gap while bypassing individual property owner objections by means of a creative combination of existing formal and informal government records. Using assumptions based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) official definition of a brownfield, environmental, land use, and property tax information can be collected on an individual property basis. The resulting data will allow communities to develop a more comprehensive brownfields profile that will help reduce the stigma effect of suspected brownfields and further community–wide redevelopment efforts.

Significant controversy surrounds the use of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in oil and gas extraction in the United States. To address some of these concerns, states are leading the charge by regulating the process. Yet, variations exist in state regulatory approaches, and it is still unclear what drives these differences. Thus, this research applies policy subsystem theory to examine original interview data to determine what may cause these variations in regulations through an examination of Colorado, Wyoming, and Louisiana. This research finds that policy subsystem theory is useful in explaining this variation. In particular, the position of agency staff and privileged stakeholder groups, often industry related, help to explain why Colorado has a much stronger regulatory program than Louisiana. In comparison, Wyoming’s stringent regulations represent the anomaly in this case, but the results of this research suggest that this dominant energy subsystem will likely not be setting any pro-environment trends going forward.

Environmental Practice 16: 102–112 (2014)