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Displacement and the Post-war Reconstruction of Education: Displaced Persons at the UNRRA University of Munich, 1945–1948

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2008

ANNA HOLIAN
ANNA HOLIAN*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 874302, Tempe, AZ 85287-4302, United States; anna.holian@asu.edu.
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Abstract

In the first years after the Second World War, Munich was home to a unique institution, the UNRRA University. Created by and for Europe's displaced persons, the university was defined as a new kind of educational institution, dedicated to the cause of reviving humanism and promoting internationalism. By virtue of their experiences of occupation, persecution and dislocation, the university argued, displaced persons were uniquely qualified to spearhead the post-war reconstruction of education and culture. This article traces the social and intellectual history of the UNRRA University. It examines the university's ideas on nationalism and internationalism, the reconstruction of higher education and the role of the intellectual in the post-war world. It argues that while much of the literature on displaced persons has focused on national communities, wartime and post-war displacement also gave rise to new transnational solidarities and imaginaries among the displaced.

Displaced persons à l'université unrra de munich, 1945–1948

Dans les premières années de l'après deuxième guerre mondiale, Munich était le foyer d'une institution unique appelée Université UNRRA. Créée par et pour les displaced persons de l'Europe, l'université était définie comme un nouveau genre d'institution éducative, dédiée à la cause de faire revivre l'humanisme et de promouvoir l'internationalisme. En raison de leurs expériences d'occupation, de persécution et de déplacement, l'université prétendait que les displaced persons étaient uniquement qualifiées d'être le fer de lance de la reconstruction de l'éducation et de la culture de l'après-guerre. Cet article retrace l'histoire sociale et intellectuelle de l'Université UNRRA. Il examine les idées de l'université sur le nationalisme et l'internationalisme, la reconstruction des études supérieures et le rôle de l'intellectuel dans le monde de l'après-guerre. Il démontre que, pendant que la littérature sur les displaced persons s'est beaucoup focalisée sur les communautés nationales, les déplacements pendant et après la guerre ont aussi donné naissance à de nouveaux solidarités et imaginaires transnationaux parmi les déplacés.

Displaced persons und die unrra-universität münchen, 1945–1948

In den ersten Jahren nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg war München der Sitz einer einmaligen Institution, der Universität der United Nations Relief Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA; Hilfs- und Wiederaufbauverwaltung der UNO). Die von displaced persons gegründete Institution sollte ihnen erlauben, in einer ganz neuen Art von Bildungsanstalt zu lernen, die sich vor allem über ihren Humanismus und ihren Internationalismus definierte. Die Gründer der Universität argumentierten dabei, dass auf Grund ihrer Erfahrungen von Besatzung, Verfolgung und Vertreibung besonders displaced persons dazu berufen waren, beim Wiederaufbau von Erziehung und Kultur nach dem Krieg die Führung zu übernehmen. Dieser Artikel untersucht die soziale und intellektuelle Geschichte der UNRRA-Universität und geht dabei besonders auf die dort diskutierten Ideen von Nationalismus und Internationalismus, vom Wiederaufbau der höheren Bildung und von der Rolle der Intellektuellen in der Nachkriegszeit ein. Der Autor argumentiert, in Erweiterung des Schwerpunkts der Literatur über displaced persons auf nationale Zugehörigkeiten, dass die Vertreibungen und Umsiedlungen während und nach dem Kriege neue transnationale Solidaritäten und Vorstellungen unter den displaced persons hervorbrachten.

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Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 17 , Issue 2 , May 2008 , pp. 167 - 195
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

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References

1 I discuss the university at greater length in my dissertation, ‘Between National Socialism and Soviet Communism: The Politics of Self-Representation among Displaced Persons in Munich, 1945–1951’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 2005. See also Bernhard Zittel, ‘Die UNRRA-Universität in München, 1945–1947’, in Archivalische Zeitschrift, 75 (1979).

2 The term displaced person was used by the Allies during and after the Second World War to refer to ‘civilians outside the national boundaries of their country by reason of the war’. On DP policies and practices see Malcolm, Proudfoot, European Refugees, 1939–52: A Study in Forced Population Movement (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1956)Google Scholar.

3 Eduard Alperowitsch, ‘Universität u. Nationalstaat’, 2 April 1948, private collection. All translations of quotations from untranslated sources are by the author.

4 Essay collections that have been important in bringing this issue into focus include Angelika, Bammer, ed., Displacements: Cultural Identities in Question (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Smadar, Lavie and Ted, Swedenburg, eds., Displacement, Diaspora, and Geographies of Identity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Akhil, Gupta and James, Ferguson, eds., Culture, Power, Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997)Google Scholar. See also James, Clifford, ‘Traveling Cultures’, in Lawrence, Grossberg, Cary, Nelson and Treichler, Paula A., eds., Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992)Google Scholar; Liisa, Malkki, ‘National Geographic: The Rooting of Peoples and the Territorialization of Identity Among Scholars and Refugees’, Cultural Anthropology, 7, 1 (1992)Google Scholar; idem, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Ong, Aihwa, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

5 For contemporary accounts see Genêt [Janet Flanner], ‘Letter from Aschaffenburg’, New Yorker, 30 Oct. 1948, and ‘Letter from Würzburg’, New Yorker, 6 Nov. 1948; Zinnemann, Fred, Fred Zinnemann: An Autobiography (London: Bloomsbury, 1992), 59–61Google Scholar; Hannah, Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1973), 292Google Scholar. In the historical literature see Mark, Wyman, DP: Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Mankowitz, Zeev W., Life between Memory and Hope: The Survivors of the Holocaust in Occupied Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jaroszynska-Kirchmann, Anna D., The Exile Mission: The Polish Political Diaspora and Polish Americans, 1939–1956 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

6 Jacobmeyer, Wolfgang, Vom Zwangsarbeiter zum Heimatlosen Ausländer. Die Displaced Persons in Westdeutschland 1945–1951 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985), 51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 On post-war German university reform see Tent, James F., Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Craig K. Pepin, ‘The Holy Grail of Pure Wissenschaft: University Ideal and University Reform in Post World War II Germany’, Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 2001; Pepin, Craig K. and Clark, Mark W., ‘Dilemmas of Education for Democracy: American Occupation, University Reform, and German Resistance’, in David, Phillips and Kimberly, Ochs, eds., Educational Policy Borrowing: Historical Perspectives, Oxford Studies in Comparative Education (Oxford: Symposium, 2004)Google Scholar; Remy, Steven P., The Heidelberg Myth: The Nazification and Denazification of a German University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Jarausch, Konrad H., ‘The Humboldt Syndrome: West German Universities, 1945–1989 – An Academic Sonderweg?’, in Ash, Mitchell G., ed., German Universities Past and Future: Crisis or Renewal? (Providence, RI: Berghahn, 1997)Google Scholar; Defrance, Corine, Les Alliés occidentaux et les universités allemandes, 1945–1949 (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2000)Google Scholar.

8 To be sure, the process of European integration has been well researched. However, we know much less about the broader history of Europeanist and internationalist movements. On Europeanism generally see Anthony, Pagden, ed., The Idea of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Mabel, Berezin and Martin, Schain, eds., Europe without Borders: Remapping Territory, Citizenship, and Identity in a Transnational Age (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; and select essays in Peter, Gowan and Perry, Anderson, eds., The Question of Europe (London: Verso, 1997)Google Scholar. On international universities see Michael, Zweig, The Idea of a World University, ed. Harold, Taylor (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967)Google Scholar.

9 To my knowledge, it was the only fully fledged international university created after the war, operating on a regular academic calendar.

10 Zweig, World University, 88.

11 Memorandum, ‘Education – Lectures for Students’, 11 Sept. 1945, United Nations Archives (hereafter UNA), United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Records (hereafter UNRRA), 3.0.11.3.2, Box 33, T 108. The spelling oddities which appear in the archival documents are as given in the original.

12 ‘The List of the Registered Students’, n.d.; ‘Academical Section Report’, 11 Sept. 1945, UNA, UNRRA, S-0436-0031-03.

13 ‘Die neue UNRRA-Universität in München’, n.d., BayHStA, Bestand UNRRA-Universität (hereafter UU) 2.

14 ‘The story of the UNRRA University’, n.d., UNRRA, 3.0.11.0.1.4, Box 2, Displaced Persons University – Munich.

15 W. S. Rogers to Miss Richman, 31 Oct. 1945, UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.3.2, Box 33, T 108.

16 ‘Remarks on the Opening of UNRRA University for Displaced Persons’, 16 Feb. 1946, BayHStA, UU 2.

17 ‘Statut der UNRRA-Universität-München’, [March 1946], BayHStA, UU 4.

18 ‘UNRRA University’, 30 Nov. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.3.0, Box 65, Welfare – Education – Zone Director's File on German Museum (Deutsches Museum). The average age of students at German universities was also quite elevated, though this was largely because students whose education had been interrupted by the war received priority in admittance. See Defrance, Les Alliés occidentaux, 133–4.

19 The figure for women at the UNRRA University comes from ‘UNRRA University Munich’, n.d., BayHStA, UU 28. The figure for women at German universities comes from CEWS-Statistikportal, ‘Entwicklung des Studentinnenanteils in Deutschland seit 1908’, available at http://www.cews.org/statistik/hochschulen.php?aid=20&cid=16 (last visited 8 Sept. 2006). Note that this figure is for 1947, the first post-war year for which data is available. Women had difficulty gaining entry to universities in Germany after the war, because veterans, war invalids and men with families enjoyed priority. In general, the proportion of DP women attending universities was considerably higher than the female average. At the University of Bonn, DP women made up almost a quarter of all female students and almost half of all DP students. The higher proportion of DP women may have been due in part to the fact that they typically gained admittance through the DP quota and thus were not subject to the same constraints as other women. Annette Kuhn, Valentine Rothe and Brigitte Mühlenbach, eds., 100 Jahre Frauenstudium. Frauen der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn (Dortmund: Ed. Ebersbach, 1996), 83, 86.

20 A significant number of students enrolled in the UNRRA University's philosophy faculty, which, however, never opened. All statistics from ‘Enrollment of Displaced Persons Students in German Universities and Comparison with German Enrollment: US Zone: 1 March 1946’, UNA, UNRRA, S-0401-0001-02.

21 Jarausch, ‘The Humboldt Syndrome’. On the longer history of this tension in Germany see Rüdiger vom Bruch, ‘A Slow Farewell to Humboldt? Stages in the History of German Universities, 1810–1945’, in Ash, German Universities Past and Future.

22 Brodzki, Bella and Varon, Jeremy, ‘The Munich Years: The Jewish Students of Post-War Germany’, in Steinert, Johannes-Dieter and Inge, Weber-Newth, eds., Beyond Camps and Forced Labour: Current International Research on Survivors of Nazi Persecution. Proceedings of the First International Multidisciplinary Conference at the Imperial War Museum, London, 29–31 January 2003 (Osnabrück: Secolo, 2005), 163, n. 13Google Scholar.

23 Memorandum from W. S. Rogers to the Rector, UNRRA University, 1 Feb. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, S-0425-0062-01.

24 Novikov, M. M., Ot Moskvy do N'iu-Iorka. Moia zhizn’ v nauke i politike (New York: Izdatel'stvo imeni Chekhova, 1952), 362–3Google Scholar.

25 Boris, Pawlow, ‘Das kurze Dasein der internationalen UNRRA-Universität. Aus den Erinnerungen eines D.P.’, in Kontinent: Ost-West-Forum, 32 (1985), 89–91Google Scholar; B. I. Balinsky, ‘The UNRRA University in Munich, 1945–1947’, unpublished ms., 1982. I am grateful to Mark Wyman for giving me a copy of the Balinsky text.

26 This information comes from discussions with Jeremy Varon and Alicia Nitecki and from an interview with former student Edward Anders (Alperovitch), 30 Sept. 2001.

27 World Student Relief, ‘Statement on the situation of Displaced Persons Students and Professors in Germany’, April 1946, UNA, UNRRA, S-0401-0001-02; Marian J. Krzyzowski, e-mail message to author, 26 March 2007.

28 Balinsky, ‘The UNRRA University’.

29 ‘Conference about UNRRA University’, [June 1946], UNA, UNRRA, S-0412, Box 10, File 1.

30 Memorandum to R.W. Collins re ‘German Museum, UNRRA University’, 4 Dec. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, S-0425-0065-08.

31 Yngve Frykholm, ‘The UNRRA University at Munich’, June 1946, UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.0.1.4, Box 2.

32 Memorandum from J. H. Whiting to S. Zisman, 16 Dec. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.3.1, District 5 – Education.

33 UNRRA University to Van Steenberg, 14 Jan. 1947, BayHStA, UU 45.

34 Memorandum from Mickelsen to OMGUS IA & C Division, 18 March 1947, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (hereafter NACP), RG 260, OMGUS, AG File 1947, AG 000.8.

35 Memorandum, ‘Withdrawal of UNRRA University in Munich’, 26 March 1947, NACP, RG 260, OMGUS, AG File, 1947, AG 000.8

36 Memorandum from Dwight P. Griswold to Chief of Staff, 24 March 1947, NACP, RG 260, OMGUS, AG File, 1947, AG 000.8. See also memorandum from OMGUS to Mickelsen, 24 March 1947, NACP, RG 260, OMGUS, AG File, 1947, AG 000.8.

37 On the plans of this organisation, the Liga Universalis Pro Una Sancta Ecclesia, see BayHStA, MK 68753.

38 This perspective was central to Karl Jaspers. On the tensions between nationalism and cosmopolitanism in Jaspers see Anson Rabinbach, In the Shadow of Catastrophe: German Intellectuals between Apocalypse and Enlightenment (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), ch. 4.

39 ‘The Official Speech of the Rector at the Unaugural Ceremony of the UNRRA-University’, n.d., UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.0.1.4, Box 2, Displaced Persons University – Munich.

40 ‘Sources of Legal Status of UNRRA University’, n.d., BayHStA, UU 1.

41 Ibid.

42 Alperowitsch, ‘Universität u. Nationalstaat’.

43 ‘Internationale Universität in Deutschland’ (Munich, 1947), private collection.

44 Pepin, ‘Holy Grail’, 261–3.

45 Valerius Michelson, untitled essay on intellectuals, n.d., private collection.

46 ‘Sources of Legal Status’.

47 Untitled essay on the International University, n.d., BayHStA, UU 3.

48 Eduard Alperowitsch, ‘Universität u. Demokratie’, 2 April 1948, private collection.

49 Untitled essay on the International University, 5 Dec. 1947, private collection.

50 Alperowitsch, ‘Universität u. Demokratie’.

51 Pepin, ‘Holy Grail’, 271–3, 277–8; Defrance, Les Alliés occidentaux, 207–9; Konrad Jarausch, Deutsche Studenten 1800–1970 (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1984), 218–19.

52 Provisorisches Studentenkomitee to the student body, 11 July 1946.

53 ‘The Official Speech of the Rector’.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 Zweig, World University, 53–62.

57 Provisorisches Studentenkomitee to the student body, 11 July 1946; ‘Memorandum. Concerning: History, Scope and Future of the UNRRA University in Munich, Germany’, 16 Dec. 1946, BayHStA, UU 3.

58 Balinsky, ‘The UNRRA University’.

59 Zweig, World University, 61–2.

60 On refugees and internationalism in a different context see Liisa Malkki, ‘Citizens of Humanity: Internationalism and the Imagined Community of Nations’, Diaspora, 3, 1 (1994), 46–9.

61 Ibid.

62 Jonathan Rée, ‘Internationality’, Radical Philosophy, 60 (Spring 1992), 10.

63 Statute of the International Students’ Association, 8 Dec. 1946, NACP, RG 260, OMGB, Education and Cultural Relations Division, Director's Administrative Records, Box 5, Intern. Studenten Club 1946–8.

64 ‘Group of iniciators’ to William Rogers, 14 Dec. 1945, BayHStA, UU 5755.

65 Ibid.

66 UNRRA University Students’ Union to the Bavarian Ministry for Education and Cultural Affairs, 17 Dec. 1946, BayHStA, MK 68753.

67 Untitled essay on the International University, n.d.

68 ‘Official Speech of the Rector’. See also ‘Der Rektor Dr. Pirkmajer anlässlich seiner Wahl am 9.2.1946 an das Professorenkollegium’, BayHStA, UU 289.

69 Adorno, Theodor, Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life, trans. Jephcott, E. F. N. (London: Verso, 1978), 39Google Scholar.

70 Malkki, ‘Citizens of Humanity’, 42.

71 Thus, for example, a description of the university's participants noted that they included not only former concentration camp prisoners, foreign workers and prisoners of war – the ‘classic’ groups of DPs – but also ‘persons who have abandoned their countries having fled from their political enemies because of their democratic convictions’. See ‘UNRRA University Munich’.

72 Liquidation Board on UNRRA University Affairs to William C. Bullit, Aug. 1948; Liquidation Board on UNRRA University Affairs to U. Carusi, ‘President of the USA Governmental DP Commission’, 10 Sept. 1948, BayHStA, UU 48.

73 Pawlow, ‘Das kurze Dasein’, 92.

74 Borys Daniluk, letter to author, 8 Nov. 2004.

75 ‘Statut der UNRRA-Universität-München’; ‘Resolution in Favor of the Reorganisation of the UNRRA University Munich into a Great and Permanent International University’, 7 Oct. 1946, BayHStA, UU 55.

76 Report of meeting with national committees of 31 Oct. 1946, BayHSta, UU 57. See also UNRRA University Students’ Union to UNRRA HQ US-Zone, USFET HQ G-5, and OMG of Bavaria, 27 Jan. 1947, NACP, RG 260, OMGB, Education and Cultural Relations Division, Director's Administrative Records, Box 5, UNRRA University.

77 Provisorisches Studentenkomitee to the student body, 11 July 1946.

78 On the activities of the law department see BayHStA, UU 11, 34, 306 and 320.

79 ‘Die UNRRA-Universität’, n.d., BayHStA, UU 2.

80 Alperowitsch, ‘Universität u. Nationalstaat’.

81 Clark, Mark W., Beyond Catastrophe: German Intellectuals and Cultural Renewal after World War II, 1945–1955 (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2006), 2Google Scholar.

82 Ibid., 3.

83 Julien, Benda, La trahison des clercs (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1975)Google Scholar; José, Ortega y Gasset, The Rebellion of the Masses (New York: W. W. Norton, 1932)Google Scholar.

84 Antonio, Gramsci, ‘The Intellectuals’, in Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Hoare, Quintin and Smith, Geoffrey Nowell (New York: International Publishers, 1971)Google Scholar. On the contrasting ideas of Gramsci and Benda see Edward, Said, Representations of the Intellectual (New York: Vintage, 1996)Google Scholar and Clark, Beyond Catastrophe, 3.

85 Meinecke, Friedrich, The German Catastrophe, trans. Fay, Sidney B. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950)Google Scholar; Karl, Jaspers, Die Idee der Universität (Berlin: Springer, 1946)Google Scholar; idem, Erneuerung der Universität. Reden und Schriften 1945/46 (Heidelberg: Lambert Schneider, 1986).

86 Clark, Beyond Catastrophe, ch. 4.

87 Michelson, untitled essay on intellectuals.

88 Untitled essay on the International University, 5 Dec. 1947.

89 Ortega's Rebellion of the Masses was included in a list of readings recommended by Alperovitch for a DP student library. Student Union in Munich, ‘Report on the Actual Situation of the Former Students of the “UNRRA” University, Munich. March–April 1948’, private collection.

90 Michelson, untitled essay on intellectuals.

91 Untitled essay on the International University, 5 Dec. 1947.

92 Ibid.

93 ‘Internationale Universität in Deutschland’, 4–5; untitled essay on the International University, 5 Dec. 1947.

94 Jaspers, Idee der Universität, 118–19. See also Pepin, ‘Holy Grail’, 179–80; Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 120–3; Felix, Gilbert, A European Past: Memoirs, 1905–1945 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), 208Google Scholar.

95 Pepin and Clark, ‘Dilemmas of Education for Democracy’, 172.

96 Pepin, ‘Holy Grail’, 282–4; Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 122.

97 ‘Internationale Universität in Deutschland’, 6.

98 Student Union in Munich, ‘Report on the Actual Situation’.

99 Ortega y Gasset, Rebellion, 92–6.

100 Michelson, untitled essay on intellectuals.

101 UNRRA University Senate and Administration to Trygve Lie, n.d., BayHStA, UU 54.

102 ‘Declaration’, 23 Jan. 1947; P. Popoff to Vachtel, 23 Jan. 1947, BayHStA, UU 45.

103 On Jewish DPs students see Brodzki and Varon, ‘The Munich Years’.

104 ‘Aufstellung aller registrierten Studenten bis 2. Juni 1946’; ‘Aufstellung der jüdischen Studenten der UNRRA-Universität v. 24.6.46’, YIVO Institute for Jewish Research (hereafter YIVO) 294.2, folder 1227.

105 Memorandum from Finn Dahle to Mrs. Gaszynska, 16 Sept. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, S-0436-0031-02.

106 Jewish Students Union to Albert Einstein, n.d., YIVO 294.2, folder 1197. Edward Anders notes that he was criticised by members of the Jewish Students Union for associating ‘with Ukrainians and such people, who are to be shunned and avoided’. Edward Anders, interview with author, 25 Sept. 2002.

107 Protocol of Jewish Students Union meeting of 28. Nov. 1948, YIVO 294.2, folder 1195.

108 O. A. Nelson to Mr. Whiting, 20 Feb. 1946, UNA, UNRRA, 3.0.11.3.0, Camps, Box 1.

109 ‘Protocol of the foundation-assembly of the Foreign Students’ Association’, n.d., BayHStA, UU 5755.

110 Protocol of International University founding committee of 20 Nov. 1946, BayHStA, UU 55.

111 Ibid.

112 Ibid.

113 Jarausch, ‘The Humboldt Syndrome’, 37–8; idem, Deutsche Studenten, 218–21.

114 World Student Relief, ‘Report on Position Taken by the Field Secretary’, UNA, UNRRA, S-0416-0010-18.

115 Nikolaj Arciuk to Secretary of the UNRRA University, n.d., BayHStA, UU 287.

116 Val Michelson, interview with author, 23 Sept. 2001.

117 Steve Porter, e-mail message to author, 8 April 2006.

118 The Forgotten Elite: The Story of Refugee Specialists (Geneva: International Refugee Organization, 1950).

119 Memorandum from P. Jacobsen to Myer Cohen, 31 March 1948, Archives nationales, Paris, AJ 43, 311/534/15 Ger, C & M, Care & Maintenance to D.P. Students Germany (emphasis in original).

120 Council of Europe, Congress of Europe: The Hague, 7–11 May 1948/Congrès de l'Europe: La Haye, 7–11 mai 1948 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999), 353–4, 401–2.

121 European Movement, European Culture Conference, Lausanne, 8–12 December 1949: Resolutions and Final Declaration (n.p., 1949).