1. Reed, John Shelton, The Enduring South: Subcultural Persistence in Mass Society (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1972).Google Scholar

2. It probably happened during the 1920s.Google Scholar

3. Stout, Harry S., “The Life and Death of the Confederate Jeremiad” (James A. Gray Lectures, Duke Divinity School, Durham, N.C., 10 1992). The author acknowledges Professor Stout's kind loan to him of this manuscript.Google Scholar

4. See for example, Heyrman, Christine Leigh, Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt (New York: Knopf, 1997).Google Scholar

5. Cash, Wilbur J., The Mind of the South (1941; reprint, New York: Random House, 1969).Google Scholar

6. The ideas of states' rights, self-determination, and confederate nationalism are addressed by Faust, Drew Gilpin, The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).Google Scholar The South as a commentary on modern industrial society is addressed by Davidson, Donald et al. , I'll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition by Twelve Southerners (1930; reprint, with an introduction by Rubin, Louis D. Jr, New York: Harper Torchbacks, 1962).Google Scholar

7. Woodward, Comer Vann, The Burden of Southern (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1960), especially “The Irony of Southern History,” 167–91.Google Scholar

8. The South is definable not only by humidity, climate, harvest, and history, as John Shelton Reed points out, but also by boundaries within which “‘Southern’ entries begin to be found in serious numbers in urban telephone directories (35–60 percent)” (Reed, John Shelton, “The South: What Is It? Where Is It?” in The South for New Southerners, ed. Escott, Paul D. and Goldfield, David R. [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991]: 35–41).Google Scholar See also McCauley, Deborah Vansau, Appalachian Mountain Religion: A History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995).Google Scholar

9. See for example Brauer, Jerald, “Regionalism and Religion in America,” Church History 54 (09 1985): 366–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10. Ayers, Edward L., The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

11. Coulter, E. Merton, The South during Reconstruction 1865–1877 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1949);Google ScholarCraven, Wesley Frank, The Southern Colonies in the Seventeenth Century 1607–1689 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1949);Google ScholarDunning, William A., Essays in the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: MacMillan, 1898);Google ScholarPhillips, Ulrich Bonnell, Life and Labor in the Old South (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1929);Google ScholarTindall, George Brown, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967);Google ScholarWoodward, Comer Vann, The Origins of the New South 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1956).Google Scholar

12. The irony refers to theories of modernity that understand modernization (not the same thing, to be sure) as a form of “secularization” rather than a process that changes rather than destroys religion. The reference is of course to Douglas's, MaryPurity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1970).Google Scholar

13. See Escort, Paul D., ed., W. J. Cash and the Minds of the South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992);Google Scholar also Eagles, Charles D., ed., The Mind of the South: Fifty Years Later (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1992).Google Scholar

14. Cash, Mind of the South, 58.Google Scholar

15. See Williams, John G., ed., The Girard Reader (New York: Crossroad, 1996), 63–117;Google ScholarGirard, René, Violence and the Sacred, trans. Gregory, Patrick (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

16. Williams, , Girard Reader, 92–93, 138.Google Scholar

17. Smith, Lillian, Killers of the Dream (1949; reprint, New York: W. W. Norton, 1961), 66.Google Scholar

18. Gewher, Wesley, The Great Awakening in Virginia 1740–1790 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1930);Google ScholarFarish, Hunter D., The Circuit Rider Dismounts: A Social History of Southern Methodism, 1865–1900 (Richmond: Dietz, 1938);Google Scholar and Johnson, Charles A., The Frontier Camp Meeting: Religion's Harvest Time (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1955) are all excellent studies worthy of attention. Walter Brownlow Posey wrote several pioneering monographs on religion in the Old Southwest:Google Scholar see his Frontier Mission: A History of Religion West of the Southern Appalachians to 1861 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1966);Google Scholar and his Religious Strife on the Southern Frontier (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965).Google Scholar For a fine survey of writing southern religious history prior to 1987, see Boles, John B., “The Discovery of Southern Religious History,” in Interpreting Southern History: Historiographical Essays in Honor of Sanford Higginbotham, W., ed. John B. Boles and Evelyn Thomas Nolen (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

19. Thompson, Ernest Trice, Presbyterians in the South, 3 vols. (Richmond: John Knox Press, 1963–73);Google ScholarBucke, Emory Stevens, ed., The History of American Methodism, 3 vols. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1964) was a multiauthored study of Methodism with appropriate sections for the South;Google ScholarHarrell, David Edwin Jr, Quest for a Christian America: The Disciples of Christ and American Society to 1866 (Nashville: Disciples of Christ Historical Society, 1966),Google Scholar and his The Social Sources of Division in the Disciples of Christ 1865–1900 (Atlanta: Publishing Systems, 1973);Google Scholar for a fuller list of histories of southern denominations see Boles, , “The Discovery of Southern Religious History” in Boles, and Nolen, , Interpreting Southern History, 515–16.Google Scholar

20. Bailey, Kenneth, Southern White Protestantism in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper and Row, 1964);Google Scholar see also Dwight, C., The Bible Belt Mystique (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974).Google Scholar

21. Hill, Samuel S. Jr, Southern Churches in Crisis (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966).Google Scholar

22. See for example the pioneering volume edited by Hareven, Tamara, Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971).Google Scholar

23. Blanks, William Davidson, “Ideal and Practice: A Study of the Conception of the Christian Life Prevailing in the Presbyterian Churches of the South during the Nineteenth Century” (Th.D. diss., Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Va., 1960);Google ScholarSmith, Cortland Victor, “Church Organization as an Agency of Social Control: Church Discipline in North Carolina 1800–1860” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1966).Google Scholar

24. Boles, John, The Great Revival (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1972).Google Scholar

25. Bruce, Dickson D., They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain-Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1974).Google Scholar

26. Mathews, , Religion in the Old South (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977).Google Scholar

27. Boles, , “The Discovery of Southern Religious History,” in Boles and Nolen, Interpreting Southern History, 517.Google Scholar

28. The title was supposed to have been “Liberty to the Captives”: The Evangelical Movement in the Old South; the cover was supposed to have depicted an African Christ. The irony and the symbolic inversion of evangelicalism from white to black was, the author was told, too precious. That this was the thesis of the book seemed irrelevant.Google Scholar

29. Genovese, Eugene D., Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974).Google Scholar

30. Elkins, Stanley M., Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959).Google Scholar

31. Creel, Margaret Washington, “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community—Culture Among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988);Google ScholarJoyner, Charles, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984);Google ScholarSobel, Mechal, Trabelin' On: The Slave Journey to an Afro-Baptist Faith (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979);Google ScholarSobel, , The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).Google Scholar An earlier study unfortunately ignored for the most part in the United States was that of Alho, Olli, The Religion of the Slaves: A Study of the Religious Tradition and Behaviour of the Plantation Slaves in the United States, 1830–1865 (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1976).Google Scholar

32. Isaac, Rhys, The Transformation of Virginia 1740–1790 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1982).Google Scholar

33. Isaac, , Transformation of Virginia, 324.Google Scholar

34. Isaac, , Transformation of Virginia, 323–57.Google Scholar

35. Klein, Rachel, Unification of a Slave State: The Rise of the Planter Class in the South Carolina Backcountry 1760–1808 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990);Google ScholarFord, Lacy, Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988);Google ScholarMcCurry, Stephanie, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

36. Friedman, Jean E., The Enclosed Garden: Women and Community in the Evangelical South, 1830–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985).Google Scholar

37. McCurry, , Masters of Small Worlds, 193.Google Scholar

38. See, for example, Bode, Fred, “A Common Sphere: White Evangelicals and Gender in Antebellum Georgia,” The Georgia Historical Quarterly 79 (Winter 1995): 775–809.Google Scholar

39. Most notably Wyatt-Brown, Bertram, Southern Honor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).Google Scholar

40. Shattuck, Gardiner H., A Shield and a Hiding Place: The Religious Life of the Civil War Armies (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1987), 63.Google Scholar

41. Faust, Drew Gilpin, The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).Google Scholar

42. Faust, , “Christian Soldiers: The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army,” Journal of Southern History 53 (02 1987): 64–88.Google Scholar

43. Wilson, Charles Reagan, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause 1865–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980).Google Scholar

44. Foster, Gaines M., Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

45. Harrell, David Edwin, ed., Varieties of Southern Evangelicalism (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1981);Google ScholarHarrell, , White Sects and Black Men in the Recent South (Nashville, Term.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971).Google Scholar

46. See Synan, Vinson, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1971).Google Scholar

47. Montgomery, William E., Each Under His Own Vine and Fig-tree: The African-American Church in the South 1865–1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

48. Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).Google Scholar

49. Angell, Stephen Ward, Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and African-American Religion in the South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992).Google Scholar

50. Hildebrand, Reginald F., The Times Were Strange and Stirring: Methodist Preachers and the Crisis of Emancipation (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

51. McMillen, Neil, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).Google Scholar

52. See for example Baer, Hans A., The Black Spiritual Movement: A Religious Response to Racism (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984);Google ScholarJacobs, Claude F. and Kaslow, Andrew J., The Spiritual Churches of New Orleans: Origins, Beliefs, and Rituals of an African-American Religion (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991);Google ScholarParis, Arthur E., Black Pentecostalism: Southern Religion in an Urban World (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982).Google Scholar Jerma Jackson has alerted the author to think about black Pentecostalism as an alternative to the ideology of “uplifting the race,” which he learned to think of in ideological terms through Gaines, Kevin K., Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996). Jackson points out how the empowered self within black Pentecostalism—not dependent on moral self-discipline of uplift—could express the authentic voice of people who sensed the connection between uplift and white hegemony. There had to be somewhere one could be “free.” Leah Hagedorn of the University of North Carolina is studying Southern Jews; Eli Evans has three distinguished books on the subject.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

53. Gaines, , Uplifting the Race. Recent conversation with Jerma Jackson suggests the importance of teasing out the full cultural meaning of spiritual religion that cannot be contained within the polarity sacred / secular any more than could the ideology of uplift. The resistance of spiritual religion to uplift preachers may have been as legitimate within the African-American community as uplift.Google Scholar

54. Harvey, Paul, Redeeming the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55. A brief, ten-hour survey of dissertation abstracts since 1987 by Cheryl Junk reveals an impressive array of work on the history of southern religion; but it is clear that scholars need to move beyond denominational restraints into cultural history.Google Scholar

56. The most recent work is that of McCauley, , Appalachian Mountain Religion.Google Scholar

57. Baer, Hans A. and Sanger, Merrill, African-American Religion in the Twentieth Century: Varieties of Protest and Accommodation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992);Google Scholar see Hollenweger, W. J., The Pentecostals: The Charismatic Movement in the Churches (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1972);Google ScholarShropshire, James Maynard, “A Socio-Historical Characterization of the Black Pentecostal Movement in America” (Ph.D. diss, Northwestern University, 1975).Google ScholarGoff, James R., Fields White unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origin of Pentecostalism (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1988).Google Scholar

58. Martin, William, With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1996);Google ScholarLienesch, Michael, Redeeming America: Piety and Politics in the New Christian Right (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993).Google Scholar

59. Genovese, Eugene D., The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820–1860 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992);Google Scholar also his selected essays in The Southern Front: History and Politics in the Cultural Wars (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995);Google ScholarFarmer, James O., The Metaphysical Confederacy: James Henley Thornwell and the Synthesis of Southern Values (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1986);Google ScholarO'Brien, Michael, The Idea of the American South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979),Google Scholar and Rethinking the South: Essays in Intellectual History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988);Google ScholarSingal, Daniel, The War Within: From Victorian to Modernist Thought in the South, 1919–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982);Google ScholarLuker, Ralph, A Southern Tradition in Theology and Social Criticism, 1830–1930 (New York: Edwin D. Mellen, 1984),Google Scholar and The Social Gospel in Black and White (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991);Google Scholar and Holifield, E. Brooks, Gentlemen Theologians: American Theology in Southern Culture, 1795–1860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1978).Google Scholar

60. Dabney, Robert Lewis; Christ Our Penal Substitute (Richmond: Virginia Presbyterian Commission of Publication, 1898).Google Scholar

61. Gorringe, Timothy, God's Just Punishment: Crime, Violence and the Rhetoric of Salvation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 12, 24 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

62. Greven, Philip, Spare the Child: The Religious Roots of Punishment and the Psychological Impact of Physical Abuse (New York: Knopf, 1991).Google Scholar

63. See Mathews, Donald G., “Christianizing the South—Sketching a Synthesis,” in New Directions in American Religious History, ed. Stout, Harry S. and Hart, Daryl G. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 93–94: Segregation could be understood as a religious system by thinking of it in the words that Clifford Geertz uses to define religion. Segregation was a “system of symbols” confirmed by law and practice that “established powerful, pervasive, and long lasting moods and motivations” that stipulated distinctions between races to be will of God.Google Scholar The sacred connotations of observing these distinctions reinforced the “factiticity” of the “moods and motivations” so that they seemed absolutely compelling (Geertz, Clifford, The Interpretation of Cultures [New York: Basic Books, 1973], 87–125).Google Scholar

64. Ownby, Ted, “Subduing Satan”: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).Google Scholar

65. Girard, Rene, Violence and the Sacred, especially 269–71;Google ScholarCell, John W., The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 82–191;CrossRefGoogle ScholarWilliamson, Joel R., A Rage for Order: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 98–181.Google Scholar

66. Douglas, , Purity and Danger, 17–72, especially 68.Google Scholar

67. This line of thinking was first developed in conjunction with a project published in Mathews, “Christianizing the South,” 93–97. Further development of the idea was published in “Religion and the South: Authenticity and Purity—Pulling Us Together, Tearing Us Apart,” in Religious Diversity and American Religious History: Case Studies in Traditions and Culture, ed. Conser, Walter H. Jr and Twiss, Sumner B. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998). Since that time the hypothesis has been further developed through reading scholars on violence, atonement, and punishment, especially those cited here. Now that the hypothesis is near completion, it needs to be tested.Google Scholar

68. See Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd, Revolt against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign against Lynching (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979).Google Scholar

69. Lischer, Richard, The Preacher King: Martin Luther King Junior and the Word that Moved America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

70. Gorringe, , God's Just Vengeance, 28, 82, 101, 108 ff., 133, 224, 248–71.Google Scholar

71. Smith, Lillian, Killers;Google ScholarGladney, Margaret Rose, How Am I to be Heard?: Letters of Lillian Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993);Google ScholarLumpkin, Katherine DuPre, The Making of a Southerner (1946; reprint, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991);Google ScholarWells-Barnett, Ida, On Lynchings: Southern Horrors, A Red Record, Mob Rule in New Orleans (New York: Arno, 1969);Google ScholarHall, , Revolt Against Chivalry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979). These citations and others possible to a broader range of work do not support the idea of a persistent resistance by all women to all forms of white male hegemony; they merely indicate an alternative view with regard to the orthodoxies of southern history. White women shared the racism of their men—although there were important exceptions. But women did speak of their own religious understandings and sometimes men could be swayed by such views when expressed as extensions of insights derived from a commonly avowed authority.Google Scholar