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Chou En-lai's Diplomatic Approach to Non-aligned States in Asia: 1953–60

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2009

Kuo-Kang Shao
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Extract

In the early 1950s Chou En-lai, in his capacity both as premier and foreign minister of the People's Republic of China, strongly advocated that the non-aligned states could be employed to improve China's diplomatic position. To reduce western influence in China's neighbouring states and to maximize Peking's diplomatic flexibility, Chou began to emphasize the relevance and necessity of “winning over” the international middle-of-the-road forces. This new policy, both in theory and practice, demonstrates his political sagacity in refusing to allow dogmatic communist ideological theories to interfere with his realistic assessment of the world situation.

Type
Research Article
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 78 , June 1979 , pp. 324 - 338
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1979

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References

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2. On Tse-tung's, Mao general attitudes towards the “neutral forces,” see his “Lun jen-min min-chu chuan-cheng” (“On the people's democratic dictatorship, 30 June 1949”), Mao Tse-tung hsüan-chi (Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung); (Peking: Jen-min ch'u-pan-she. 4 vols. 1951–1960), Vol. IV, p. 1,478Google Scholar (Hereafter, Mao Tse-tung hsüan-chi is cited as HC); “Tsai Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang ti pa-tz'u ch'üan-kuo tai-piao ta-hui k'ai-mu-t'zu” (“Opening speech at the Eighth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 5 September 1956”), Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang ti pa-tz'u ch'üan-kuo tai-piao ta-hui wen-chien (Documents of the Eighth National Congress of the CCP) (Peking: Jen-min ch'u-pan-she, 1956), pp. 3–4Google Scholar; “Tsai Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang ti pa-tz'u ch'üan-kuo tai-piao ta-hui-shang ti fa-yen” (“Speech at the Eighth National Congress of the CCP, 15 September 1956”), Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang ti pa-tz'u ch'üan-kuo tai-piao ta-hui wen-hsien (Documentary Papers of the Eighth National Congress of the CCP)(Peking: Chung-kung chung-yang pan-kung-t'ing, 1957), p. 8Google Scholar; and “Kuan-yü cheng-ch'üeh ch'ü-li jen-min nei-pu mao-tun ti wen-t'i, tsai tsui-kao kuo-wu hui-i shih-i-tz'u k'uota hui-i-shang ti yen-chiang” (“On the correct handling of contradictions among the people, speech delivered to the enlarged 11th session of the Supreme State Conference, 27 February 1957”), Jen-min, 19 June 1957, pp. 1 and 3.

3. For details of Chou En-lai's background, see Hsu, Kai-yu, Chou En-lai: China's Gray Eminence (New York: Doubleday, 1968Google Scholar); and Boorman, Howard L. (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), pp. 392–93Google Scholar.

4. Hsu, , Chou En-lai, p. xvGoogle Scholar.

5. Snow, Edgar, Red Star Over China (New York: Random House Press, 1938), p. 45Google Scholar.

6. Ibid.

7. See En-lai, Chou, “On the present international situation and China's foreign policy, 30 July 1955,” p. 1Google Scholar; “On the present international situation, China's foreign policy, and liberation of Taiwan, 28 June 1956,” p. 90; and “Mu-ch'ien kuo-chi hsing-shih ho Chung-kuo wai-chiao cheng-t'se, tsai ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo jen-min tai-piao ta-hui ti wu-tz'u hui-i-shang ti fa-yen” (“On the present international situation and China's foreign policy, delivered to the fifth session of the First National People's Congress, 10 February 1958”), Jen-min, 11 February 1958, p. 2.

8. See, e.g., “Chung-Yin liang-kuo tsung-li lien-ho sheng-ming” (“Premiers Chou En-lai-Nehru joint statement, 28 June 1954”), Jen-min, 29 June 1954, p. 1; Chung-Mien liang-kuo tsung-li hui-t'an kung-pao” (“Premiers Chou En-lai-U Nu joint communiqué, 12 December 1954”), Jen-min, 13 December 1954, p. 1; and En-lai, Chou, “Report on the work of the government, 23 September 1954,” p. 78Google Scholar.

9. En-lai, Chou, “Tsai Chung-kuo jen-min cheng-chih hsieh-shang hui-i ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo wei-yüan-hui ti szu-tz'u hui-i-shang ti pao-kao” (“Report delivered at the fourth session of the First National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 4 February 1953”), Jen-min, 5 02 1953, p. 2Google Scholar.

10. En-lai, Chou, “Kuan-yü Ch'ao-hsien t'ing-chan t'an-p'an wen-t'i ti shengming” (“Statement concerning the problem of Korean armistice negotiations, 30 March 1953”), Jen-min, 31 03 1953, p. 1Google Scholar.

11. For the full text of the Sino-Indian agreement on trade and intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India, 29 April 1954, see White Papers: Notes, Memoranda and Letters Exchanged Between the Governments of India and China (New Delhi: Government of India, 8 Vols. 1959–1963), Vol. I, pp. 98–101Google Scholar.

12. En-lai, Chou, “Tsai Ni-ho-lu so-she yen-hui-chung chih-tz'u” (“Speech at the banquet given by Nehru, 26 June 1954”), Jen-min, 28 06 1954, p. 1Google Scholar.

13. Tse-tung, Mao, “Tsai Chung-kuo jen-min cheng-hsieh ti i-chieh hui-i-shang ti k'ai-mu-tz'u” (“Opening speech, delivered at the first session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 21 September 1949”), Jen-min, 22 09 1949, p. 1Google Scholar.

14. For Premier Chou En-lai's description of China's official position at the Bundung Conference, see his “Tsai Ya-Fei hui-i ch'üan-t'i hui-i-shang ti fa-yen” (“Speech delivered to the full conference of the Asian-African countries, 19 April 1955”), Jen-min, 20 April 1955, p. 1; “Tsai Ya-Fei hui-i ch'üan-t'i hui-i-shang ti pu-ch'ung fa-yen” (“Supplementary speech delivered to the full conference of the Asian-African Countries, 19 April 1955”), Jen-min, 20 April 1955, p. 1; and “Speech delivered to the Political Committee of the Asian-African countries at Bandung, 23 April 1955,” New York Times, 25 April 1955, p. 7.

15. En-lai, Chou, “Speech to the full conference of the Asian-African countries, 19 April 1955,” p. 1Google Scholar.

16. En-lai, Chou, “Speech delivered to the Political Committee of the Asian-African Countries at Bandung, 23 April 1955,” p. 7Google Scholar.

17. Ibid.

18. En-lai, Chou, “Tsai Chung-kuo jen-min cheng-chih hsieh-shang hui-i ti erhchieh ch'üan-kuo wei-yüan-hui ti erh-tz'u ch'üan-t'i hui-i-shang ti cheng-chih paokao” (“Political report, delivered at the second session of the Second National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 30 January 1956”), Jen-min, 31 01 1956, p. 2Google Scholar.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. En-lai, Chou, “On the present international situation, China's foreign policy and the liberation of Taiwan, 28 June 1956,” p. 90Google Scholar.

23. Ibid. p. 95.

24. Ibid.

25. See En-lai, Chou, “Kuan-yü fang-wen Ya-chou ho Ou-chou shih-i-kuo ti pao-kao, tsai Chung-kuo jen-min cheng-chih hsieh-shang hui-i ti erh-chieh ch'üankuo wei-yüan-hui ti san-tz'u ch'üan-t'i hui-i-shang” (“Report on visits to 11 countries in Asia and Europe to the third Plenary session of the Second National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 5 March 1957”), Jen-min, 6 03 1957, p. 1Google Scholar.

26. Ibid.

27 Ibid. p. 3.

28. Ibid.

29. Full text of Premiers Chou En-lai – U Nu joint statement, 29 June 1954 in Jen-min, 30 June 1954, p. 1.

30. “Premiers Chou En-lai – U Nu joint communiqué, 12 December 1954,” p. 1.

31. In accordance with the two treaties on the Sino-Burmese boundary line signed between China and Great Britain in 1894 and 1897 respectively, the area north of Myitkyina was left to be determined in the future. In 1941, taking advantage of China's involvement in the protracted war with Japan, Britain effected, through exchange of notes with the Chinese Nationalist Government on 18 June 1941, a demarcation in the Kawa area to its advantage by the adoption of the Iselin Line. It was named after Colonel Frederic Iselin, a Swiss who was in charge of a League of Nations Commission to survey the Kawa area in 1935–37. The boundary line between China and British Burma as proposed by the Commission under Iselin was accepted by Britain in 1937. The Nationalist Government of China finally accepted it in 1941. Text of the 1894 Convention in British and Foreign State Papers 1894–95 (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1900), p. 1,311Google Scholar; and text of the 1897 Convention in British and Foreign State Papers 1896–97 (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1901), p. 25Google Scholar.

32. “Chung-Mien shuang-fang fa-piao lien-ho hsin-wen kung-pao” (“The Sino-Burmese joint press communiqué, 9 November 1956”), Jen-min, 10 November 1956, p. 1.

33. En-lai, Chou, “Tsai Mien-tien fan-fa-hsi-szu-ti jen-min tzu-yu lien-meng ti chiang-hua” (“Speech at the Burmese Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, 11 December 1956”), Jen-min, 13 12 1956, p. 4Google Scholar.

34. For the official Chinese contention, see En-lai, Chou, “Tsai Chung-hua jenmin kung-ho-kuo ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo jen-min tai-piao ta-hui ti szu-tz'u hui-i kuan-yü Chung-Mien pien-chieh wen-t'i pao-kao” (“Report to the fourth session of the First National People's Congress on the question of the boundary line between China and Burma, 9 July 1957”), Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho-kuo ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo jen-min tai-piao ta-hui ti szu-tz'u hui-i wen-chien (Documents of the Fourth Session of the First National People's Congress, the People's Republic of China) (Peking: Jen-min ch'u-pan-she, 1957), pp. 185–91Google Scholar.

35. Ibid. p. 186.

36. Ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo jen-min tai-piao ta-hui ti szu-tz'u kuan-yü Chou En-lai tsung-li chien wai-chiao-pu chang kuan-yü Chung-Mien pien-chieh wen-t'i pao-kao ti chüen-i” (“Resolution on Premier and Foreign Minister Chou En-lai's report concerning the question of the boundary line between China and Burma, adopted by the fourth session of the First National People's Congress, 15 July 1957”), Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho-kuo ti i-chieh ch'üan-kuo jen-min tai-piao ta-hui wenchien, p. 184.

37. See En-lai, Chou, “Cheng-fu kung-tso pao-kao, ti erh-chieh ch'üan-kuo jenmin tai-piao ta-hui ti i-tz'u hui-i” (“Report on the work of the government, made at the first session of the Second National People's Congress, 18 April 1959”), Jen-min, 19 04 1959, p. 4Google Scholar.

38. Ibid.

39. The full text of the Sino-Burmese Preliminary Boundary Agreement, signed on 28 January 1960, in Jen-min, 1 February 1960, p. 1.

40. See Article II of the Sino-Burmese preliminary agreement.

41. The full text of the boundary treaty between the People's Republic of China and the Union of Burma, 1 October 1960, is in Jen-min, 2 October 1960, p. 3.

42. En-lai, Chou, “Tsai U Nu tsung-li so-she kuo-yen-shang ti chiang-hua” (“Speech at the state banquet given by Premier U Nu, 2 January 1961”), Jen-min, 4 01 1961, p. 4Google Scholar.

43. Ibid.; also see “Chung-Mien liang-kuo cheng-fu lien-ho kung-pao” (“The joint communiqué of the Chinese and Burmese Governments, 9 January 1961”), Jen-min, 10 January 1961, p. 1.

44. See Chou En-lai, “Report on foreign relations, 11 August 1954,” p. 1; “Political report, 21 December 1954,” p 1;” On the present international situation and China's foreign policy, 30 July 1955,” p. 1; “Political report, 30 January 1956,” p. 2; “On the present international situation, China's foreign policy, and the liberation of Taiwan, 28 June 1956,” p. 90; “Report on visits to 11 countries in Asia and Europe, 5 March 1957,” p. 1; “On the present international situation and China's foreign policy, 10 February 1958,” p. 2; and “Report on the work of the government, 18 April 1959,” p. 4 .