Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pjpqr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-29T22:04:55.041Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Consequentialism and the Synthetic Biology Problem

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 March 2017

PATRICK HEAVEY
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

This article analyzes the ethics of synthetic biology (synbio) from a consequentialist perspective, examining potential effects on food and agriculture, and on medicine, fuel, and the advancement of science. The issues of biosafety and biosecurity are also examined. A consequentialist analysis offers an essential road map to policymakers and regulators as to how to deal with synbio. Additionally, the article discusses the limitations of consequentialism as a tool for analysing synbioethics. Is it possible to predict, with any degree of plausibility, what the consequences of synthetic biology will be in 50 years, or in 100, or in 500? Synbio may take humanity to a place of radical departure from what is known or knowable.

Keywords

synthetic biology (synbio)consequentialismbiosafetybiosecurityethics
Type
Special Section: Synthetic Biology: Ethical and Philosophical Challenges
Information
Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics , Volume 26 , Issue 2 , April 2017 , pp. 206 - 229
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. da Vinci, L. A Treatise on Painting. Quoted in Trutty-Coohill P. Comic rhythms in Leonardo da Vinci. In: Tymieniecka, A-T, ed. Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological Research, Vol. LVI. Dordrecht: Springer; 1998:185–202, at 196.Google Scholar

2. An excellent introduction to synbio and its various subfields of research is: ETC Group. Extreme Genetic Engineering: An Introduction to Synthetic Biology 2007; available at http://www.etcgroup.org/content/extreme-genetic-engineering-introduction-synthetic-biology (last accessed 1 Aug 2016). For a scientific textbook on the field, see Baldwin G, Bayer T, Dickinson R, Ellis T, Freemont PS, Kitney RI, et al. Synthetic Biology: A Primer (revised edition). London: Imperial College Press; 2015.

3. See, for example, Balmer P, Martin A. Synthetic Biology: Social and Ethical Challenges; 2008; available at http://www.synbiosafe.eu/uploads/pdf/synthetic_biology_social_ethical_challenges.pdf (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

4. Garrett L. The promise and perils of the synbio revolution. In: Foreign Affairs: The Fourth Industrial Revolution – A Davos Reader 2013; available at https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2013-10-15/biologys-brave-new-world (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

5. Ferdman R. This is the future of meat. Washington Post, May 20, 2015; available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/05/20/meet-the-future-of-meat-a-10-lab-grown-hamburger-that-tastes-as-good-as-the-real-thing/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

6. Addady M. You could be eating lab grown meat in just 5 years. Forbes February 2, 2016; available at http://fortune.com/2016/02/02/lab-grown-memphis-meats/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

7. Adler, G. The growing menace from superweeds. Scientific American 2011;304:74–9.

8. See note 7, Adler 2011.

9. See note 7, Adler 2011.

10. Reville W. Seeds of disharmony. The Irish Catholic, December 15, 2011;22.

11. See note 7, Adler 2011.

12. Lean G. Exposed: the great GM crops myth. The Independent on Sunday, April 20, 2008; available at http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/exposed-the-great-gm-crops-myth-812179.html (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

13. Shoemaker R, ed. Economic issues in agricultural biotechnology. U.S. Department of Agriculture Information Bulletin 2002;762; available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/AIB762 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

14. Weiss R. Firms seek patents on ‘climate ready’ altered crops. Washington Post, May 13, 2008; available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/12/AR2008051202919.html?hpid=moreheadlines (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

15. Shiva V. Now Monsanto is after our water. The Ecologist 1999;29(5).

16. See note 15, Shiva 1999.

17. Resnik, D. Owning the Genome: A Moral Analysis of DNA Patenting. New York: State University of New York Press; 2004.Google Scholar

18. ETC Group. Terminator: The Sequel. 2008; available at http://www.etcgroup.org/content/terminator-sequel (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

19. Keteyian A. Agricultural giant battles small farmers. CBS Evening News. 2008; available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/26/eveningnews/main4048288.shtml (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

20. Shand, H. Terminator technology: genetically altered seeds will destroy both diversity and good-producing capacity. Christian Social Action 1999;12(9):7–10.Google Scholar

21. See note 20, Shand 1999.

22. Livingstone G. The real hunger games: how banks gamble on food prices – and the poor lose out. Independent, March 31, 2012; available at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/the-real-hunger-games-how-banks-gamble-on-food-prices-and-the-poor-lose-out-7606263.html (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

23. Bawden. T. Barclays makes £500m betting on food crisis. Independent, August 31, 2012; available at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/barclays-makes-500m-betting-on-food-crisis-8100011.html (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

24. See note 3, Balmer, Martin 2008.

25. Kohn, D, Candotti, F. Gene therapy fulfilling its promise. The New England Journal of Medicine 2009;360(5):518–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

26. Venter C. Understanding our genes: a step to personalised medicine. Presentation to California Institute for Regenerative Medicine. January 17, 2012; available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAU6ObEJHaE (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

27. Ghosh P. Gene therapy reverses sight loss and is long lasting. BBC News. April 28, 2016; available at http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-36101786 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

28. Garde, D. Could a molecular ‘on-off witch for agony’ lead to a safer painkiller? Stat News, July 5, 2016; available at https://www.statnews.com/2016/07/05/pain-drug-opioid-alternative/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

29. Pollack A. A powerful new way to edit DNA. New York Times, March 3, 2014; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/health/a-powerful-new-way-to-edit-dna.html?version=meter+at+1&contentId=&mediaId=&referrer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F05%2F14%2Fscience%2Fsynthetic-human-genome.html%3F_r%3D0&priority=true&action=click&contentCollection=Science&module=RelatedCoverage&region=EndOfArticle&pgtype=article&_r=0 (last accessed 1Aug 2016).

30. Robbins, R. The dream of 3-D printed organs rests on keeping cells alive. Stat News, February 15, 2016; available at https://www.statnews.com/2016/02/15/bioprinting-3d-printing-organs-tissue/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

31. Kang, H, Lee, SJ, Ko, IK, Kengla, C, Yoo, JJ, Atala, A. A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity. Nature Biotechnology 2016;(34):312–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

32. St. Fleur, N. It’s possible to grow a 3-D printed ear on a mouse’s back. New York Times, February 22, 2016; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/22/science/its-possible-to-grow-a-3-d-printed-ear-on-a-mouses-back.html?smid=fb-nytscience&smtyp=cur&_r=0 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

33. Zhou, Q, Wang, M, Yuan, Y, Wang, X, Fu, R, Wan, H, et al. Complete meiosis from embryonic stem cell-derived germ cells in vitro. Cell Stem Cell 2016;18(3):330–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

34. Walsh F. US bid to grow human organs for transplant inside pigs. BBC News, June 6, 2016; available at http://www.bbc.com/news/health-36437428 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

35. Lee, JB, Wang, X, Faley, S, Baer, B, Balikov, DA, Sung, H, et al. Development of 3D microvascular networks within gelatin hydrogels using thermoresponsive sacrificial microfibers. Advanced Healthcare Materials 2016;5(7):781–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

36. Balakar N. Lab-grown bones successfully implanted in pigs. New York Times, June 22, 2016; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/science/lab-grown-bones-successfully-implanted-in-pigs.html (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

37. Park S-J, Gazzola M, Park KS, Park S, Di Santo V, Blevins EL, et al. Phototactic guidance of a tissue-engineered soft-robotic ray. Science 2016;353:158–62.

38. Pennisi E. Heartmaker’s next step: a ray ’biohybrid.’ Science 2016;353:110–1.

39. Pollack, A. Scientists talk privately about creating a synthetic human genome. New York Times, May 13, 2016; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/14/science/synthetic-human-genome.html?_r=0 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

40. Begley S. George Church has a wild idea to upend evolution. Here’s your guide. Stat News, May 16, 2016; available at https://www.statnews.com/2016/05/16/george-church-profile/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

41. Endy D, Zoloth L. Should we synthesise a human genome? Cosmos May 12, 2016; available at: https://cosmosmagazine.com/society/should-we-synthesise-human-genome?version=meter+at+null&module=meter-Links&pgtype=article&contentId=&mediaId=&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.ie%2F&priority=true&action=click&contentCollection=meter-links-click (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

42. Walsh F. Gene editing technique could transform future. BBC News, June 6, 2016; available at http://www.bbc.com/news/health-36439260 (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

43. Roquet N, Soleimany AP, Ferris AC, Aaronson S, Lu TK. Synthetic recombinase-base state machines in living cells. Science 2016;353(6297):363.

44. Patel P. Tech turns to biology as data storage needs explode. Scientific American, May 31, 2016; available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/tech-turns-to-biology-as-data-storage-needs-explode/ (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

45. Consortium for the Barcoding of Life. What is DNA Barcoding? 2010–2016; available at http://www.barcodeoflife.org/content/about/what-dna-barcoding (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

46. Loudin JD, Simanovski DM, Vijayraghaven K, Sramek CK, Butterwick AF, Huie P, et al. Optoelectronic retinal prosthesis: system design and performance. Journal of Neural Engineering 2007;4(1):S72–S84.

47. Zrenner E. Subretinal microelectrode arrays allow blind retinitis pigmentosa patients to recognize letters and combine them with words. Conference Presentation: Android and Eve; November 12–13, 2009; Vienna Biocenter.

48. The Telegraph Health News. Woman wants her hand cut off and replaced with bionic limb. The Telegraph, March 19, 2012; available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9152883/Woman-wants-her-hand-cut-off-and-replaced-with-bionic-limb.html (last accessed 1 Aug 2016).

49. Warwick K. I, Cyborg. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press; 2004.

50. KevinWarwick.com, August 2, 2016; available at http://www.kevinwarwick.com/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

51. Ninu A. Neurally controlled (thought-powered) arm prosthesis – case study. Conference Presentation: Android and Eve; November 12–13, 2009; Vienna Biocenter.

52. . Minimally invasive “stentrode” shows potential as neural interface for brain. DARPA News and Events, February 8, 2016; available at http://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2016-02-08 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

53. Oxley TJ, Opie NL, John SE, Rind GS, Ronayne SM, Wheeler TL, et al. Minimally invasive endovascular stent-electrode array for high-fidelity, chronic recordings of cortical neural activity. Nature Biotechnology 2016;34:320–7.

54. Tyler DJ. Creating a prosthetic hand that can feel. IEEE Spectrum, April 28, 2016; available at http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/bionics/creating-a-prosthetic-hand-that-can-feel (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

55. Bijak M. Stimulating Eve: The usage of electrical current to reactivate lost body functions. Conference Presentation: Android and Eve; November 12–13, 2009; Vienna Biocenter.

56. Gaidos S. Mind controlled. Science News 2011;180(1):126.

57. Hochberg LR, Bacher D, Jarosiewicz B, Masse NY, Simeral JD, Vogel J, et al. Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm. Nature 2012;485;372–5.

58. Blana, D. How brain implants can let paralysed people move again. The Conversation, July 1, 2016; available at https://theconversation.com/how-brain-implants-can-let-paralysed-people-move-again-61183 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

59. Alvelda P. Neural engineering system design. DARPA program information. n.d.; available at http://www.darpa.mil/program/neural-engineering-system-design (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

60. . Bridging the bio-electronic divide. DARPA News and Events, January 19, 2016; available at http://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2015-01-19 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

61. Boosting synaptic plasticity to accelerate learning. DARPA News and Events, March 16, 2016; available at http://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2016-03-16 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

62. Weber D. Electrical prescriptions (ElectRx). DARPA Program Information. n.d.; available at http://www.darpa.mil/program/electrical-prescriptions (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

63. Reife J. Rise of the cyborgs: ’I can feel events in Japan when I’m in New York.’ The Guardian, July 3, 2016; available at https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/jul/03/cyborgs-future-technology-global-events-awareness-japan-new-york (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

64. Creighton J. The evolution of AI: can morality be programmed? Futurism July 1, 2016; available at http://futurism.com/the-evolution-of-ai-can-morality-be-programmed/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

65. Michel B. Computers can become more powerful by adopting traits of the human brain. Irish Examiner, July 4, 2016; available at http://www.irishexaminer.com/viewpoints/analysis/computers-can-become-more-powerful-by-adopting-traits-of-the-human-brain-408268.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

66. Conitzer V. Artificial intelligence: where’s the philosophical scrutiny? Prospect Magazine May 4, 2016; available at http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/science-and-technology/artificial-intelligence-wheres-the-philosophical-scrutiny (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

67. Bostrom N. Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016.

68. DARPA [Internet]. Available at http://www.DARPA.mil (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

69. DARPA. Cyber Grand Challenge: The World’s First All-Machine Hacking Tournament 2016; available at https://www.cybergrandchallenge.com/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

70. Carmichael J. Elon Musk says DARPA AI hacking challenge will lead to Skynet. Inverse July 14, 2016; available at https://www.inverse.com/article/18301-elon-musk-warns-that-darpa-artificial-intelligence-security-challenge-will-yield-skynet (last accessed 31 Jul 2016).

71. Jacobsen A. Engineering humans for war. The Atlantic, September 23, 2015; available at http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/09/military-technology-pentagon-robots/406786/?utm_source=SFFB (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

72. See note 71, Jacobsen 2015.

73. See note 71, Jacobsen 2015.

74. Christian Aid. Growing Pains: The Possibilities and Growing Pains of Biofuels. London: Christian Aid; 2009, at 7; available at http://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/biofuels-report-09.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

75. Savage N. Making gasoline from bacteria: a biotech startup wants to coax fuels from engineered microbes. Technology Review, August 1, 2007; available at http://www.technologyreview.com/Biztech/19128/(last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

76. Sustainable Energy Ireland. What is Biomass? n.d.; available at http://www.seai.ie/Archive1/Files_Misc/REIOBiomassFactsheet.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

77. Bontemps J, Burel M, Dragomir A, Dumitrescu E. Biofuels and Food Production: Ethical Issues. Lublin: EU Socrates Erasmus IP Bioethics in Life Sciences and Environmental Sciences; 2009; available at http://bioethics.agrocampus-ouest.fr/infoglueDeliverLive/digitalAssets/74559_Biofuels_and_food_production_r.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

78. Chopra P, Kamma A. Engineering life through synthetic biology. In Silico Biology 2006;6(5):401–10.

79. See note 18, ETC Group 2008.

80. Nuffield Council on Bioethics. Press Release: Current Biofuels Policies are Unethical, Says Report. 2011; available at http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/news/current-biofuels-policies-are-unethical-says-report (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

81. Buyx A, Tait J. Ethical framework for biofuels. Science 2011;332:540–1.

82. ETC Group. The New Biomassters: Synthetic Biology and the Next Assault on Biodiversity and Livelihoods. 2010; available at http://www.etcgroup.org/content/new-biomassters (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

83. Monbiot G. Feeding cars, not people. The Guardian, November 23, 2004; http://www.monbiot.com/2004/11/23/feeding-cars-not-people/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

84. Ghoniem, AF. Needs, resources and climate change: clean and efficient conversion technologies. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 2011;37(1):15–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

85. Royal Society. Sustainable Biofuels: Prospects and Challenges. London: Royal Society; 2009; available at https://royalsociety.org/∼/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2008/7980.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

86. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels. Nairobi: UNEP; 2009; available at http://www.unep.org/PDF/Assessing_Biofuels.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

87. Connor C. How research into glowing fungi could lead to trees lighting our streets. The Guardian, July 3, 2016; available at https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jul/03/fungi-glow-dark-luminscent-mushrooms-conservation-enviroment-bioscience (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

88. Glowing Plant Project. n.d.; available at http://www.glowingplant.com/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

89. See note 82, ETC Group 2010.

90. See note 82, ETC Group 2010.

91. See note 82, ETC Group 2010.

92. Beddington, J. Food, Energy, Water and the Climate: A Perfect Storm of Global Events? London: Government Office for Science; 2009.Google Scholar

93. In 1972, a group of MIT researchers produced a report, Limits to Growth, which used computer modelling to simulate how population growth, industrial output, pollution, food production, and the consumption of fossil fuels would affect civilization in the long term. Their model suggested a near-apocalyptic scenario if significant changes were not introduced. See: Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J, Behrens III W. The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind. New York: Universe Books; 1972. Also Meadows DH, Randers J, Meadows DL. Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing Co.; 2004. Also Turner G. A Comparison of the Limits to Growth with Thirty Years of Reality. Canberra: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation; 2007; available at http://www.manicore.com/fichiers/Turner_Meadows_vs_historical_data.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

94. See note 86, UNEP 2009.

95. See note 86, UNEP 2009.

96. Church G, Regis E. Regenesis: How Synthetic Biology Will Reinvent Nature and Ourselves. New York: Basic Books; 2012, at 177.

97. This quotation is encoded, as a “watermark,” into the DNA of Synthia, the world’s first synthetic cell, where it has been slightly changed to: “What I cannot build, I cannot understand.” There are two other quotes encoded in Synthia’s genome: “To live, to err, to fall, to triumph, and to recreate life out of life” (James Joyce, Portrait of the Artist); and “See things not as they are but as they might be” (J. Robert Oppenheimer). In Biello D, Harmon K. Tools for life: what’s next for cells powered by synthetic genomes? Scientific American, August 2010; available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=tools-for-life (last accessed 2 Aug 2016); and Saenz A. Secret messages encoded into DNA of Venter synthetic bacteria. Singularity Hub May 24, 2010; available at http://singularityhub.com/2010/05/24/venters-newest-synthetic-bacteria-has-secret-messages-coded-in-its-dna/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

98. Kanehisa M. Post-Genome Informatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2000, at 24.

99. PA. Attenborough sees conditions of life on Earth deteriorating. Irish Times, October 18, 2011; available at http://www.irishtimes.com/news/attenborough-sees-conditions-of-life-on-earth-deteriorating-1.626442 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

100. Gross P, Levitt N. Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press; 1998.

101. Lyotard J. (Bennington G, Massumi B. trans.) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1984.

102. Boeve L. Interrupting Tradition. Leuven: Peeters Press; 2003.

103. Sokal A. Beyond the Hoax: Science, Philosophy and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010.

104. Sokal A. A physicist experiments with cultural studies. Lingua Franca 1996;6(4):62–4.

105. Harding S. The Science Question in Feminism. Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press; 1986.

106. American Sociological Association. Jessie Bernard Major ASA Award. 2011; available at http://www.asanet.org/about/awards/bernard.cfm (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

107. Romm J. Anti-science conservatives must be stopped. Salon.com, June 30, 2008; available at http://www.salon.com/2008/06/30/climate_act/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

108. Mooney C. The Republican War on Science. New York: Basic Books; 2006.

109. See note 108, Mooney 2006.

110. See note 108, Mooney 2006.

111. Graebsch A, Schiermeier Q. Anti-evolutionists raise their profile in Europe. Nature 2006;444:406–7; and Leigh, V. Interview with Steve Jones: the threat of creationism. Science in School, 2008;9:9–17. In Australia, Sydney’s Cardinal Pell is an outspoken opponent of the scientific consensus on climate change—see Pell G. The Tablet speeches—Pell attacks climate change propagandists. The Tablet November 4, 2011.

112. See, for example: Schwartz J. Of gay sheep, modern science and the perils of bad publicity. New York Times, January 25, 2007; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/science/25sheep.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=gay%20sheep&st=cse (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

113. Porcar M, Danchin A, de Lorenzo V, dos Santos VA, Krasnogor N, Rasmussen S, Moya A. The ten great challenges of synthetic life. Systems and Synthetic Biology 2011;5(1-2):1–9.

114. Cassidy S. Dawkins takes fight against religion into the classroom. The Independent, November 27, 2006; available at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/dawkins-takes-fight-against-religion-into-the-classroom-426057.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

115. Nurse P. Editorial: Stamp out anti-science in US politics. New Scientist 2011;211(2830):5.

116. Pope Benedict XVI. Caritas in Veritate. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana; 2009; para 14; available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20090629_caritas-in-veritate_en.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

117. Al-Khalili J. Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Islamic Science. London: Penguin; 2012.

118. Deen S. Science Under Islam: Rise, Decline and Revival. Raleigh, NC: LULU; 2011.

119. Aldhous P. Tycoon seeks patent for ‘minimal genome.’ New Scientist June 8, 2007; available at http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12021-tycoon-seeks-patent-for-minimal-genome.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

120. Andrianantoandro E, Basu S, Karig D, Weiss R. Synthetic biology: new engineering rules for an emerging discipline. Molecular Systems Biology 2006;2:28.

121. McPherson, J. Reliability Physics and Engineering: Time to Failure Analysis. New York: Springer; 2010, at vii.

122. For example, Herriot-Watt University. M.Sc./Diploma in Safety, Risk and Reliability Engineering, n.d.; available at http://www.postgraduate.hw.ac.uk/prog/msc-safety-risk-and-reliability-engineering-distance-learning-only-/(last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

123. Billah, K, Scanlan R. Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure, and undergraduate physics textbooks. American Journal of Physics 1991;59(2):118–24.

124. pbs.org - American Experience. Biography: Leon Moisseiff, n.d.; available at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/goldengate-moisseiff/(last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

125. Keats J. Picture imperfect: technology is as flawed as the people who design it. New Scientist 2012;213(2856):51.

126. Cho M, Relman D. Synthetic ‘life,’ ethics, national security and public discourse. Science 2010;329:38–9.

127. Tawfik D. Messy biology and the origins of evolutionary innovations. Nature Chemical Biology 2010;6:692–6.

128. Elowitz M, Levine A, Siggia E, Swain P. Stochastic gene expression in a single cell. Science 2002;297(5584):1183–6.

129. Martincorena I, Seshasayee A, Luscombe N. Evidence of non-random mutation rates suggests an evolutionary risk management strategy. Nature 2012;485:95–8.

130. Callaway E. Immaculate creation: birth of the first synthetic cell. New Scientist May 20, 2010; available at http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18942-immaculate-creation-birth-of-the-first-synthetic-cell.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

131. Ohno S. So much ‘junk’ DNA in our genome. Evolution of genetic systems. Brookhaven Symposia in Biology 1972;23:366–70.

132. Hall S. Hidden treasures in junk DNA. Scientific American, October 1, 2012; available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hidden-treasures-in-junk-dna/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

133. Biémont C Vieira C. Genetics: junk DNA as an evolutionary force. Nature 2006;443(7111):521–4.

134. Drexler, E. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1990.Google Scholar

135. ETC Group. Green Goo: Nanobiotechnology Comes Alive. 2003; available at http://www.etcgroup.org/content/green-goo-nanotechnology-comes-alive (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

136. Hanluain D. Green goo: The new nano-threat. Wired, July 19, 2004; available at http://archive.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2004/07/64235 (last accessed 4 Feb 2016).

137. Eric Drexler. See note 135, ETC Group 2003, at 2.

138. Phoenix C, Drexler E. Safe exponential manufacturing. Nanotechnology 2004;15(8):869–72.

139. Kalaugher L. Drexler dubs grey goo fears obsolete. Nanotechweb.org. 2004; available at http://nanotechweb.org/cws/article/indepth/19648 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

140. Rincon P. Nanotech guru turns back on ‘goo’. BBC News Online, June 9, 2004; available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3788673.stm (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

141. Arkin A, Endy D. A standard parts list for biological circuitry. DARPA White Paper. 1999; available at http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/29794 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

142. Reidel S. Biological warfare and bioterrorism: a historical review. Proceedings of the Baylor University Medical Center 2004;17(4):400–6.

143. Tumpey TM, Basler CF, Aguilar PV, Zeng H, Solorzano A, Swayne DE, et al. Characterization of the reconstructed 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic virus. Science 2005;310(5745):77–80.

144. See note 2, ETC Group 2007.

145. Westphal S. Ebola virus could be synthesised. New Scientist, July 17, 2002; available at http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2555-ebola-virus-could-be-synthesised.html (last accessed 4 Feb 2016).

146. See note 2, ETC Group 2007.

147. For example, the complete genome of the Zaire ebola virus, Mayinga strain, is listed in GenBank. 2012; available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=10141003 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016). This is the website of the National Center for Biotechnology Information in the United States, and it houses information from the world’s major biology databases. A wealth of biological information, in addition to DNA sequences, is given, including references to journal articles and books.

148. See note 145, Westphal 2002.

149. For example, DIY Biology Forum. n.d.; available at https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/diybio (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

150. Tam P. ‘Biohackers’ get their own space to create. Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2012; available at http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204124204577150801888929704.html (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

151. Biocurious homepage. n.d.; available at http://biocurious.org/(last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

152. Genspace homepage. n.d.; available at http://genspace.org/(last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

153. New England BioLabs. BioBrick Assembly Kit. 2009; available at https://www.neb.com/products/e0546-biobrick-assembly-kit (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

154. Gefter A. Can hobbyists and hackers transform biotechnology? Technology Review, April 11, 2011; available at http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/37444/ (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

155. Levy S. Geek power: Stephen Levy revisits tech titans, hackers, idealists, Wired, May 2010; available at http://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/04/ff_hackers/all/1 (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

156. See note 155, Levy 2010.

157. See, for example, Bowden M. Worm: The First Digital World War. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press; 2011.

158. Wohlsen M. Biopunk: Solving Biotech’s Biggest Problems in Kitchens and Garages. New York: Penguin; 2011.

159. Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Intelligence. The Darker Bioweapons Future, November 3, 2003; available at http://www.fas.org/irp/cia/product/bw1103.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

160. See note 159, Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Intelligence 2003.

161. See note 159, Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Intelligence 2003.

162. Carnegie Corporation of New York. Crafting Strategies to Control Biological Weapons New York: Carnegie Corporation; 2009: at 2; available at https://www.carnegie.org/media/filer_public/35/33/353366be-cc42-435b-8346-c45b5592d3be/ccny_creview_2009_bioweapons.pdf (last accessed 2 Aug 2016).

163. Graham B, Talent J, Allison G, Cleveland R, Rademaker S, Roemer T, et al. World at Risk: The Report of the Commission on the Prevention of WMD Proliferation and Terrorism. New York: Vintage Books; 2008.

164. Landler M. Obama urges China to restrain North Korea as he praises South’s successes. New York Times, March 26, 2012; available at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/27/world/asia/president-obama-in-south-korea.html (last accessed 31 July 2016).

165. Obama B. Remarks by President Obama at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies. Mission of the United States, Geneva 2012; available at http://geneva.usmission.gov/2012/03/26/president-obama/ (last accessed 31 July 2016).

166. O’Toole F. GAA no amateurs on ‘secret’ payments. Irish Times, February 28, 2012; available at http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0228/1224312480734.html (last accessed 31 July 2016).

167. See note 166, O’Toole 2012.

168. For a proposed global regulatory approach, see Heavey, P. Global health justice and governance for synthetic biology. American Journal of Bioethics 2012;12:64–5. This is derived from: Ruger JP. Global health justice and governance. American Journal of Bioethics 2012;12(12):35–54.

169. Keynes JM. The ex ante theory of the rate of interest. In: Collected Works of John Maynard Keynes; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1971–1983, at XIV; 215–23. Quoted in Kay J. The enduring certainty of radical uncertainty. Financial Times, April 5, 2016; available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ec5520c4-fb23-11e5-8f41-df5bda8beb40.html#axzz4D9dttVOd (last accessed 31 July 2016).

170. Darwin, C. A letter to Joseph Hooker. In: Dawkins, R. The Ancestors’ Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. Boston: Mifflin Harcourt; 2005, at 560.Google Scholar

171. See, for example: Deamer, D. First Life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 2011.Google Scholar