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Environmental Risk and the Iron Triangle: The Case of Yucca Mountain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Kristin S. Shrader-Frechette
Kristin S. Shrader-Frechette*
Affiliation:
University of South Florida
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Abstract:

Despite significant scientific uncertainties and strong public opposition, there appears to be an “iron triangle” of industry, government, and consultants/contractors promoting the siting of the world’s first permanent geological repository for high-level nuclear waste and spent fuel, proposed for Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Arguing that representatives of this iron triangle have ignored important epistemological and ethical difficulties with the proposed facility, I conclude that the business climate surrounding this triangle appears to leave little room for consideration of ethical issues related to public safety, environmental welfare, and citizen consent to risk. If my analysis of the Yucca Mountain case is correct and typical, then some of the most pressing questions of business ethics may concern how to break the iron triangle or, at least, how to expand it into a quadrilateral that includes the public.

Type
Articles
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 5 , Issue 4 , October 1995 , pp. 753 - 777
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 1995

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References

1 Olinger, D.: 1991, “Nuclear Industry Targets Nevada,” St. Petersburg Times (Dec. 1), p. Dl. See also Keesler, A.: ‘Testimony,’ in C. Fairhurst: 1990, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, National Research Council, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101 Congress (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), pp. 01–02, and Schneider, K.: 1991, ‘Nuclear Industry Plans Ads to Counter Critics,’ New York Times (Nov. 13), p. A18.

2 Olinger, op. cit., p. D1.

3 See Shrader-Frechette, K. S.: 1993, Burying Uncertainty: Risk and the Case Against Geological Disposal of Nuclear Waste (University of California Press, Berkeley).

4 See Sen, A.: 1993, “Does Business Ethics Make Economic Sense?,” Business Ethics Quarterly 3 (Jan.), no. 1, pp. 45–54.

5 See Marquiss, K.: 1991, “Defense Contracts: Operation III Wind,” in Case Studies in Business Ethics, T. Donaldson and A. R. Gini, eds. (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ), p. 90.

6 Rosen, M. E.: 1991, “Nevada v. Watkins: Who Gets the Shaft?,” Virginia Environmental Law Journal 10, pp. 239–309.

7 Fairhurst, C.: 1990, “National Research Council and National Academy of Sciences, ‘Statement’,” in US Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, US Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, October 2, 1990 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 18.

8 Deere, D.: 1990, “US Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board, ‘Statement’,” in US Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of Committee on Environment and Public Works, US Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, October 2, 1990 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 18. The position in favor of permanent geological disposal is also confirmed by Blowers, A., D. Lowry, and B. Solomon: 1991, The International Politics of Nuclear Waste (St. Martin’s Press, New York), p. 318, and by the US National Academy of Sciences, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council: 1990, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (National Academy Press, Washington, DC), pp. v, 6. See Waste Isolation Systems Panel, Board on Radioactive Waste Management: 1983, A Study of the Isolation System for Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Wastes (National Academy Press, Washington, DC).

9 Blowers, Lowry, and Solomon, op. cit., pp. 318–19.

10 Murray, R. L.: 1983, Understanding Radioactive Waste (Batelle Press, Columbus), p. 127, p. 142; Blowers, Lowry, and Solomon, op. cit., p. 318.

11 For discussion of the 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act, see US Congress: 1978, High-Level Nuclear Waste Issues, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, US Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, April 23, June 2, 3, 18, 1987 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC). See also US Congress: 1981, Radioactive Waste Legislation Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, ‘House of Representatives, 97th Congress, First Session, June 23, 25; July 9, 1981 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC).

12 For discussion of the 1987 Act, see Raeber, J. D.: 1989, “Federal Nuclear Waste Policy as Defined by the Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1987,” Saint Louis University Law Journal 34, no. 1 (Fall), pp. 111–31.

13 US DOE: 1991, Site Characterization Progress Report: Yucca Mountain, Nevada, DOE/RW-0307P (US DOE, Washington, DC), p. xiv.

14 Swainston, H. W.: 1992, “Yucca Mountain: A Study of Conflicts in Federalism,” Inter Alia 57, no. 1 (October), pp. 11–16. Sawyer, G. and the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects: 1992, Report of the Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City), pp. 57–58. See also US Congress: 1991, Nuclear Waste Policy Amendment Act of 1991, Report of Mr. Johnston (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), pp. 1–5.

15 Bryan, R. H., Governor of Nevada: 1987, “Statement,” in US Congress, Nuclear Waste Program, Hearings Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, US Senate, 100th Congress, April 29 and May 7, 1987, Part 3 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 41, provides the 80-percent figure. See also Yates, M: 1990, “DOE Reassess Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program,” Public Utilities Fortnightly (February 15), pp. 36–38, esp. 36; Loux, R.: 1990, “Will the Nation’s Nuclear Waste Policy Succeed at Yucca Mountain?,” Public Utilities Fortnightly (November 22), p. 27, p. 52.

16 For discussion of sub-seabed disposal, see, for example, Kaplan, R. A.: 1991, “Into the Abyss: International Regulation of Sub-seabed Nuclear Waste Disposal,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, no. 3 (January), pp. 769–800; and US Congress: 1987, Civilian Radioactive Waste Disposal, Hearings Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, 100th Congress, First Session, July 16, 17, 1987 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), pp. 244ff., 309ff.

17 For data on the 80-percent opposition figure, see Bryan, op. cit., p. 41.

18 For the cost figures, see Johnston, J. B.: 1991, “Statement,” in US Congress, Nuclear Waste Program (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 147.

19 Waddell, R. K, J. H Robison, and R. K. Blankennagel: 1984, Hydrology of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity, Nevada-California—Investigative Results through Mid-1983 (US Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations Report 84–4267, Denver, CO).

20 Sinnock, S. et al.: 1986, Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transportât the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, SAND 85–2701 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), p. i.

21 US DOE: 1986, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada, DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (US DOE, Washington, DC), vol. 2, pp. 06–165.

22 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 06–167.

23 For examples of such difficulties, see Hamilton, L., D. Hill, M. D. Rowe, and E. Stern: 1986, Toward a Risk Assessment of the Spent Fuel and High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal System, Contract DE-AC02–76CH00016 (US DOE, Washington, DC), pp. 09–12. See also Shrader-Frechette, K. S.: 1993, Burying Uncertainty: Risk and the Case Against Geological Disposal of Nuclear Waste (University of California Press, Berkeley), chs. 4–7.

24 Lovins is quoted in Bates, A. K: 1988, “The Karma of Kerma: Nuclear Wastes and Natural Rights,” Environmental Law and Litigation 3 (Nov.), p. 19.

25 Peters, R., J. H. Gauthier, and A. L. Dudley: 1985, “Effect of Percolation Rate on Water-Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones,” in Symposium on Groundwater Flow and Transport Modeling for Performance Assessment of Deep Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Waste (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), Item 227 in US DOE, DE88004834.

26 Board on Radioactive Waste Management, US NAS: 1990, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (National Academy Press, Washington, DC), p. v; see also p. 27.

27 Travis, B., S. W. Hodson, H. E. Nuttall, T. L. Cook, and R. S. Rundberg: 1984, Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow and Radionuclide Transport in Yucca Mountain (Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos, NM), pp. 03–04.

28 Dudley, A., R. Peters, J. Gauthier, M. Wilson, M. Tierney, and E. Klavetter: 1988, Total System Performance Assessment Code (TOSPAC): Volume 1, Physical and Mathematical Bases: Yucca Mountain Project, SAND85–0002 UC-70 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), Item 182 in US DOE, DE90006793, p. 92.

29 Travis, Hodson, Nuttall, Cook, and Rundberg, op. cit., p. 16.

30 Ibid., p. 25; Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. i.

31 US DOE: 1985, Tectonic Stability and Expected Ground Motion at Yucca Mountain. Final Report. Revision 1. August 7–8, 1984-January 25–26,1985 (Science Applications International Corp., La Jolla, CA), Item 18 in US DOE, DE88004834; Emel, J., B. Cooke, R. Kasperson, H. Brown, R. Goble, J. Himmelberger, and S. Tuller: 1988, Risk Management and Organizational Systems for High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal: Issues and Priorities, NWPO-SE-008–88 (Carson City, NV: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City, Nevada), September; Emel, J., R. Kasperson, R. Goble, and O. Rennet: 1988, Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues, NWPO-SE-011–88 (State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City, NV), June.

32 O’Brien, P.: 1977, Technical Support for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management, Task C Report: Assessment of Migration Pathways, EPA 520/4–79-997C (US EPA, Washington, DC), p. 68.

33 NRC: 1987, “Staff Comments,” in US Congress, Nuclear Waste Program, Hearings Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, US Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy’s Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, January 29, February 4 and 5, 1987, Part 1 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 204. For the NAS claim, see Board, NAS, op. cit., p. 4.

34 Rusche, B.: “Statement,” in US Congress, Nuclear Waste Program (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 917.

35 US DOE, NWPA-Yucca, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 06–78.

36 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 06–334, pp. 06–335.

37 Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 58.

38 Raker, S., and R. Jacobson: 1987, Chemistry of Groundwater in Tuffaceous Rocks, Central Nevada, NWPO-TR-006–87 (State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City, NV), January, p. 72.

39 Stephens, K., L. Boesch, B. Crane, R. Johnson, R. Moler, S. Smith, and L. Zaremba: 1986, Methodologies for Assessing Long-Term Performance of High-Level Radioactive Waste Packages, NUREG/CR-4477 ATR-85(5810–01)1ND (US NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, Washington, DC), January, p. xvi, p. 8–2.

40 Malone, C. 1990: “Geologic and Hydrologic Issues Related to Siting a Repository for High-Level Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA,” Journal of Environmental Management 30, p. 381; Brown, D. and J. Lemons: 1990, “Scientific Certainty and the Laws That Govern Location of a Potential High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository,” Environmental Management 15, no. 3, p. 319.

41 Lemons, J. and D. Brown: 1990, “The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA,” The Environmentalist 10, no. 1, p. 10.

42 Emel, J., B. Cook, R. Kasperson, and O. Renn: 1990, Nuclear Waste Management: A Comparative Analysis of Six Countries, NWPO-SE-034–90 (State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City, NV), November, p. 5.

43 Hunter, R., and C. Mann: 1989, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes Affecting the Performance of Geologic Repositories, NUREG/CR-3964 SAND86–0196, vol. 1, June (US NRC, Division of High-Level Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, Washington, DC), p. 1.

44 Ibid., p. 2.

45 Thompson Engineering Company: 1988, Review and Comment on the US Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan Conceptual Design Report, NWPO-TR-009–88 (State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, Carson City, NV), item 329 in US DOE, DE90006793 (October), p. 13.

46 Malone, C.: 1989, “The Yucca Mountain Project,” Environmental Science and Technology 23, no. 12, p. 1453. For the utility-industry claim, see Yates, M.: 1990, “Council Report Finds High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository Rules ‘Unrealistic’,” Public Utilities Fortnightly (August 16), pp. 40–41. For the NAS worries, see Board, NAS, op. cit.

47 Younker, J. L., S. L. Albrecht, W. J. Arabasz, J. H. Bell, F. W. Cambray, S. W. Carothers, J. I. Drever, J. T. Einaudi, D. E. French, K. V. Hodges, R. H. Jones, D. K. Kreamer, W. G. Pariseau, T. A. Vogel, T. Webb, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, L. R. Rickertsen, J. M. Boak, and J. R. Stockey: 1992, Report of the Peer Review Panel on the Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, SAIC-91/8001 (US DOE, Washington, DC), p. B-2: hereafter cited as Younker, Albrecht, et al.

48 Fairhurst, C.: 1990, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, National Research Council, in The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, US Senate, 101st Congress (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 35.

49 Thompson Engineering Company, op. cit., p. 5.

50 Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 57.

51 Ibid, p. i.

52 Peters, R.: 1986, The Effect of Percolation Rate on Water Travel in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones, SAND85–0854 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), p. i.

53 Reichard, E., C. Cranor, R. Raucher, and G. Zapponi: 1990, Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment (International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Oxfordshire, England), p. 101.

54 Bryan, R.: 1985, State of Nevada Comments on the US Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain, 2 vols. (Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, Carson City, NV), vol. 1, p. 1–42, p. 1–43; Peters, op. cit., p. 32; see Sawyer, G.: 1987, “Statement,” in US Congress, Nuclear Waste Program, Hearings Before the Committees on Energy and Natural Resources, US Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy’s Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, January 29, February 4 and 5, 1987, Part 1 (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 709, p. 712.

55 Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 58, p.75.

56 Ibid, pp. i-ii.

57 Sinnock, S. and T. Lin 1984, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada, SAND84–1492 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), p. 41.

58 Ibid, p. 37.

59 Ibid, p. 53.

60 Ibid., p. 41.

61 Ibid, p. 53.

62 Jacobson, E.: 1985, Investigation of Sensitivity and Uncertainty in Some Hydrologic Models of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity, SAND84–7212 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), p. 90.

63 Sinnock and Lin, op. cit., p. 29.

64 Sinnock and Lin, op. cit., p. 24; Smith, C. B., D. J. Egan, Jr., W. A. Williams, J. M. Gruhlke, and C-Y. Hung, and B. L. Serini: 1982, Population Risks from Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Geologic Repositories, EPA-520/3–80-006 (US EPA, Washington, DC), p. 91.

65 Sinnock and Lin, op. cit., p. 16.

66 Ibid., p. 37.

67 Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 58.

68 Ibid., p. 75.

69 Ibid., p. 77.

70 Ibid., p. 80.

71 Smith, Egan, Williams, Gruhlke, Hung, and Serini, op. cit., p. 49.

72 Ibid., p. 183.

73 Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 77.

74 Thompson, F. L., F. H. Dove, and K. M. Krupka: 1984, Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis for a Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, SAND83–7475 (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM), pp. v-vi.

75 Dudley, Peters, Gauthier, Wilson, Tierney, and Klavetter, op. cit., p. 56.

76 See, for example, Younker, J. L., W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, C. C. Herrington, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, and L. R. Rickertsen: 1992, Report of Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, SAIC-91/8000 (US Department of Energy, Washington, DC), pp. 2–94, pp. 2–163; hereafter cited as: Younker, Andrews, et al.

77 Younker, Albrecht, et al., op. cit., p. 25.

78 Ibid., p. 259.

79 Ibid., p. 214.

80 Ibid., p. 214.

81 Younker, Andrews, et al., op. cit., pp. 2–121, pp. 1–3.

82 Ibid., pp. 01–09.

83 Ibid., pp. 2–117.

84 US EPA: 1973, Report to Congress on Hazardous Waste Disposal (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), June, p. 133.

85 Papadopulos, S., and I. Winograd: 1974, Storage of Low-Level Radioactive Wastes in the Ground: Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Factors, EPA-520/3–74-009 (US EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, DC), p. 29, p. 33.

86 Zehner, H.: 1979, Preliminary Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site, USGS 79–1329 (US Department of the Interior, USGS, Louisville, KY), pp. 48–52.

87 See Board, NAS, op. cit., p. 4. See also Radin, A., Chair: 1989, Monitored Retrievable Storage Review Commission, Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), p. 103, p. 10, p. xvii.

88 Bates, op. cit., p. 13.

89 US DOE: 1986, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington, 3 vols., DOE/RW-0070 (US DOE, Washington, DC), vol. 2, pp. 6–148.

90 Barry, B.: 1991, Liberty and Justice (Clarendon Press, Oxford), pp. 271–73; See Shrader-Frechette, op. cit., esp. chs. 8–10.

91 Yates, M.: 1990, “DOE Reassesses Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program,” Public Utilities Fortnightly (February 15), pp. 36–38.

92 Parker, F. L. et al: 1990, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, US National Research Council, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (National Academy Press, Washington, DC), p. 1, p. 4, p. 6.

93 Radin, op. cit., p. D3, p. D18.

94 Ibid., p. D5, see also p. D4, p. D18.

95 Ibid., p. D6, p. D7, p. D18.

96 Ibid., p. D8, p. D9, p. D18.

97 Ibid., p. D10, p. D18.

98 Ibid., p. D11, p. D12, p. D18. See Milnes, A.: 1985, Geology and Radwaste (Academic Press, New York), pp. 286ff. See also US NAS: 1980, A Review of the Swedish KBS-II Plan for Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel (US NAS, Washington, DC); and Nyquist, C. E.: 1987, “Nuclear Waste Disposal in Sweden,” Public Utilities Fortnightly (May 14), pp. 34–35.

99 Radin, op. cit., pp. D13-D15, p. D18.

100 Ibid., pp. D15-D18.

101 Ibid., p. D17.

102 See, for example, Shrader-Frechette, K.: 1991, Risk and Rationality (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA), chap. 9.

103 See Sinnock et al., op. cit., p. 80.

104 Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality, op. cit., pp. 132–34.

105 Shue, H.: 1981, “Exporting Hazards,” in P. Brown and H. Shue, eds., Boundaries: National Autonomy and Its Limits (Rowman and Littlefield, Totowa, NJ), pp. 107–45; Lichtenberg, J.: 1981, “National Boundaries and Moral Boundaries,” in P. Brown and H. Shue, eds., Boundaries: National Autonomy and Its Limits (Rowman and Littlefield, Totowa, NJ), pp. 79–100.

106 See, for example, Becker, L.: 1984, “Rights,” in L. Becker and K. Kipnis, eds., Property (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ), p. 76. For a discussion of the flaws in this view of rights, see Baier, A.: 1986, ‘Poisoning the Wells,’ in R. MacLean, ed., Values at Risk (Rowman and Allenheld, Totowa, NJ), pp. 49–74.

107 Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality, op. cit., pp. 136–37.

108 Ibid., pp. 137–38.

109 Ibid., pp. 138–39.

110 For a discussion of this argument, see Frankena, W. K.: 1962, “Concept of Social Justice,” in R. Brandt, ed., Social Justice (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ), p. 15; Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality, op. cit., chap. 8.