Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-04T08:19:03.227Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Business, Human Rights and Peace: Linking the Academic Conversation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 June 2020

John E. KATSOS Open the ORCID record for John E. KATSOS [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The fields of business and human rights (BHR) and business for peace (B4P) have overlaps in how they view business in society and in their multidisciplinary nature. This paper seeks to build on the work of BHR scholars in connecting with the B4P scholarly community, to bridge the divide by explaining the elements of the B4P literature that might be of interest for BHR scholars, and to describe a joint research agenda for scholars in both fields. The paper begins with a literature review of the major assertions and findings of B4P on the role that business can and should play in enhancing peace. Similarities and differences in approach and theories between BHR and B4P are then noted. A common research agenda is proposed that BHR and B4P scholars may use as a starting point for broader collaboration.

Keywords

business and human rightsbusiness for peacebusiness in societypeace through commerce
Type
Scholarly Article
Information
Business and Human Rights Journal , Volume 5 , Issue 2 , July 2020 , pp. 221 - 240
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Associate Professor of Business Law and Ethics, School of Business Administration, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.

Conflicts of interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

References

1 Deva, S., Ramasastry, A., Wettstein, F., and Santoro, M., ‘Editorial: Business and Human Rights Scholarship: Past Trends and Future Directions’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights Journal 201–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wettstein, F., ‘From side show to main act: Can business and human rights save corporate responsibility?’ in Baumann-Pauly, D. and Nolan, J. (eds.), Business and human rights: From principles to practice (New York: Routledge, 2016 ) 78–87Google Scholar.

2 Baumann-Pauly, D., ‘Bridging Theory and Practice through Immersion: Innovations for Teaching Business and Human Rights at Business Schools’ (2018) 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 139–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cassel, D., The Third Session of the UN Intergovernmental Working Group on a Business and Human Rights Treaty (2018), 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 277–283CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Preuss, L. and Brown, D., ‘Business Policies on Human Rights: An Analysis of Their Content and Prevalence Among FTSE 100 Firms’ (2012) 109 Journal of Business Ethics 289–299CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Wettstein, F. and Schrempf-Stirling, J., ‘Business, Peace, and Human Rights’ in Miklian, J., Alluri, R., and Katsos, J. (eds.), Business, Peacebuilding and Sustainable Development (New York: Routledge, 2019 )Google Scholar.

4 Wettstein, note 1; Baumann-Pauly, note 2.

5 Brenkert, G. G., ‘Business Ethics and Human Rights: An Overview’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 277–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wettstein and Schrempf-Stirling, note 3; Wettstein, note 1; Preuss and Brown, note 2.

6 Miklian, J., Alluri, R. M., and Katsos, J. E. (eds.), Business, Peacebuilding and Sustainable Development (New York: Routledge, 2019CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Miklian, J., ‘Contextualising and theorising economic development, local business and ethnic cleansing in Myanmar’ (2019) 19 Conflict, Security and Development 55–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oetzel, J. et al., ‘Business and peace: Sketching the terrain’ (2009) 89 Journal of Business Ethics 351–373CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Katsos, J. E., ‘Editorial: Access and Application: Addressing the Two Major Problems in Current Business and Peace Research’ (2016) 7 Business, Peace and Sustainable Development 3–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Oetzel et al., note 6.

8 J. Miklian and P. Schouten, ‘Business for peace: the new paradigm of international peacebuilding and development’ (2014), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm (accessed May, 4, 2020).

9 Dworkin, T. and Schipani, C., ‘Linking Gender Equity to Peaceful Societies’ (2007) 44 American Business Law Journal 391CrossRefGoogle Scholar; T. L. Fort and C. A. Schipani, ‘The Role of the Corporation in Fostering Sustainable Peace’ (2002) 35 35 Vand. J. Transnat’l L. 389–435.

10 Fort, T. L., ‘Peace through commerce: A multisectoral approach’ (2009) 89 Journal of Business Ethics 347–350CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fort, T. L., ‘The business of peace’ (2016) 59 Business Horizons 451–453CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fort, T., Business, integrity, and peace: Beyond geopolitical and disciplinary boundaries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Miklian, J., Schouten, P., and Ganson, B., ‘From boardrooms to battlefields: 5 new ways that businesses claim to build peace’ (2016) 37 Harvard International Review 1–4Google Scholar.

12 Oetzel, J. and Miklian, J., ‘Multinational enterprises, risk management, and the business and economics of peace’ (2017) 25 Multinational Business Review 270–286CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Katsos, note 6; Miklian, Schouten, and Ganson, note 11.

14 Miklian, Alluri, and Katsos, note 6; Katsos, note 6; B. Ganson, ‘Business in fragile environments: Capabilities for conflict prevention’ (2014) 7 Negotiation and Conflict Management Research 121–139.

15 Oetzel et al, note 6; J. Katsos, E. and AlKafaji, Y., ‘Business in War Zones: How Companies Promote Peace in Iraq’ (2019) 155 Journal of Business Ethics 41–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Mansfield, E. D., Milner, H. V., and Rosendorff, B. P., ‘Why democracies cooperate more: Electoral control and international trade agreements’ (2002) 56 International Organization 477–513CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Fort and Schipani, note 9; Fort, T. L. and Schipani, C. A., ‘An action plan for the role of business in fostering peace’ (2007) 44 American Business Law Journal 359–377CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fort, T. L. and Schipani, C. A., The role of business in fostering peaceful societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

18 Oetzel et al, note 6.; J. Oetzel and M. Breslauer, ‘Editorial: The Business and Economics of Peace: Moving the Agenda Forward’ (2015) Business, Peace and Sustainable; Oetzel, J. and Getz, K., ‘Why and how might firms respond strategically to violent conflict?’ (2012) 43 Journal of International Business Studies 166–186CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oetzel and Miklian, note 12.

19 Anderson, R., ‘A definition of peace’ (2004) 10(2) Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 101-116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anderson, J., Markides, C., and Kupp, M., ‘The Last Frontier: Market Creation in Conflict Zones, Deep Rural Areas, and Urban Slums’ (2010) 52 California Management Review 6–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ganson, note 14.

20 Fort and Schipani, note 9.

21 Enright, M., ‘The Globalization of Competition and the Localization of Competitive Advantage: Policies Towards Regional Clustering’ (2000) In Hood, N. and Young, S. (eds.), The Globalization of Competition and The Localization of Competitive Advantage: Policies Towards Regional Clustering (London: Palgrave, 2002), 303-331Google Scholar; M. Duffied, ‘Globalization and War Economies : Promoting Order or the Return of History ?’ (1999) 23 Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 1983-2000 21–37; R. DeMartino, D. McHardy Reid, and S. C. Zygliodopoulos, ‘Balancing localization and globalization: Exploring the impact of firm internationalization on a regional cluster’ (2006) 18 Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 1–24.

22 Gozzi, J. C., Levine, R., Martinez Peria, M. S., and Schmukler, S. L., ‘How firms use corporate bond markets under financial globalization’ (2015) 58 Journal of Banking and Finance 532-551CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 James, J., ‘Information technology, transactions costs and patterns of globalization in developing countries’ (2002) 60 Review of Social Economy 4, 507-519CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Youngdahl, W. E. and Loomba, A. P., ‘Service-driven global supply chains’ (2000) 11 International Journal of Service Industry Management 329–347CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M. Andersen and T. Skjoett-Larsen, ‘Corporate social responsibility in global supply chains’ (2009) 14 Supply chain management: an international journal 75–86; P. S. Berman, ‘From international law to law and globalization’ (2005) 43 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 485–556.

25 UNOCHA, World Humanitarian Data and Trends 2018 (2018). https://interactive.unocha.org/publication/datatrends2018/ (last accessed May 12, 2020)

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, Uppsala Conflict Data Program (2013). https://ucdp.uu.se/ (last accessed May 12, 2020); HIIK, ‘Conflict Barometer 2018’ (2019) 27 Disputes, Non-Violent Crises, Violent Crises, Limited Wars, Wars 193.

29 UNGC and UNHCR, Business Action Pledge in Response to the Refugee Crisis: Illustrative Examples to Inspire Action (2016). https://business.un.org/documents/business_action_pledge_refugee_crisis_illustrative_examples.pdf (last accessed March 18, 2019).

30 Ganson, note 14.

31 I. Elbadawi, L. Kaltani, and K. Schmidt-Hebbel, ‘Post-conflict aid, real exchange rate adjustment, and catch-up growth’ (2007) World Bank Policy Research Working.

32 Prahalad, C. K., The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid, revised and updated 5th anniversary edition: Eradicating poverty through profits (London: FT Press, 2009Google Scholar).

33 Oetzel et al, note 6; Oetzel and Miklian note 12; Oetzel and Getz note 18; Getz, K. A. and Oetzel, J., ‘MNE Strategic Intervention in Violent Conflict: Variations Based on Conflict Characteristics’ (2009) 89 Journal of Business Ethics 375–386CrossRefGoogle Scholar; C. H. Oh and J. Oetzel, ‘Once bitten twice shy? Experience managing violent conflict risk and MNC subsidiary-level investment and expansion’ (2016) 38 Strategic Management Journal 3, 714–731.

34 Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15; Katsos, J. E., ‘Business and Terrorism: The ISIS Case’ in Katsos, J. E., Miklian, J., Alluri, R. M. (eds.), Business, Peacebuilding and Sustainable Development, (New York: Routledge, 2019Google Scholar); J. E. Katsos and J. Forrer, ‘Business practices and peace in post-conflict zones: lessons from Cyprus’ (2014) 23 Business Ethics: A European Review 154–168; J. E. Katsos and T. L. Fort, ‘Leadership in the promotion of peace: Interviews with the 2015 Business for Peace honorees’ (2016) 59 Business Horizons 463–470.

35 Katsos, note 6.

36 Fort and Schipani, note 17; Oetzel et al, note 6.

37 Davenport, E. and Low, W., ‘Fair trade, peace and development in conflict zones’ in Raynolds, L. and Bennett, E. (eds.) Handbook of Research on Fair Trade, (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015), pp. 355–371Google Scholar; E. Gartzke, ‘The capitalist peace’ (2007) 51 American journal of political science 166–191; P. J. McDonald, ‘Peace through Trade or Free Trade?’ (2004) 48 Journal of Conflict Resolution 547–72; Mansfield, Milner, and Rosendorff, note 16; K. Barbieri, The liberal illusion: Does trade promote peace? (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002); D. C. Copeland, ‘Economic interdependence and war: A theory of trade expectations’ (1996) 20 International security 5–41.

38 P. Le Billon, ‘Buying peace or fuelling war: The role of corruption in armed conflicts’ (2003) Journal of International Development; Wimmer, A., ‘Democracy and ethno-religious conflict in Iraq’ (2003) 45 Survival 111–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. Acemoglu and J. A. Robinson, ‘Persistence of power, elites, and institutions’ (2008) 98 (1) American Economic Review 267-293; D. Chandler, ‘The responsibility to protect? Imposing the “Liberal Peace”’ (2004) 11(1) International Peacekeeping 59-81; W. J. Henisz and B. A. Zelner, ‘Legimitacy, Interest Group Pressure, and Change in Emergent Institutions: The Case of Foreign Investors and Host Country Governments’ (2005) 30 Academy of Management Review 361–382.

39 Miklian, Schouten, and Ganson, note 11.

40 Austin, J. L. and Wennmann, A., ‘Business engagement in violence prevention and peace-building: the case of Kenya’ (2017) 17 Conflict, Security & DevelopmentCrossRefGoogle Scholar 451–72.

41 Sandler, T., ‘Economic Analysis of Conflict’ (2000) 44 Journal of Conflict Resolution 723–729CrossRefGoogle Scholar; I. Elbadawi and N. Sambanis, ‘How Much War Will We See? Explaining the Prevalence of Civil War’ (2002) 46 The Journal of Conflict Resolution 307–334; P. Collier et al., Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2002); J. Azam and A. Mesnard, ‘Civil war and the social contract’ (2001) 115 Public Choice 455–475; H. A. Wani, ‘Understanding conflict resolution’ (2015) 1(2) Centre for Promoting Ideas 104–111; HIIK, note 28.

42 Shahrani, N. M., ‘War, factionalism, and the state in Afghanistan’ (2002) 104 American Anthropologist 715–722CrossRefGoogle Scholar; K. Menkhaus and J. Prendergast, ‘Conflict and crisis in the Greater Horn of Africa’ (1999) 98 Current History 213-217; B. Atzili, ‘State Weakness and “Vacuum of Power” in Lebanon’ (2010) 33 Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 757–82; R. Hinnebusch, ‘From Westphalian Failure to Heterarchic Governance in MENA: The Case of Syria’ (2018) 29 Small Wars & Insurgencies 391–413.

43 Hinnebusch, note 42.

44 Collier, P., ‘Post-conflict recovery: How should strategies be distinctive?’ (2009) 18 Journal of African Economies 99-131CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A., ‘AID, Policy and Peace: Reducing the risks of civil conflict’ (2002) 13 Defence and Peace Economics 435–450CrossRefGoogle Scholar; P. Collier, ‘Post-Conflict Economic Recovery’ (2006) 49 ReCALL 929–929.

46 Collier, P., Hoeffler, A., and Soderbom, M., ‘Post-Conflict Risks’ (2008) 45 Journal of Peace Research 461–478CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Collier and Hoeffler, note 45.

47 D. Acemoglu, L. Fergusson, and S. Johnson, ‘Population and Conflict’ (forthcoming 2020) The Review of Economic Studies, https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdz042 (last accessed May 10, 2020).

48 R. Mills and Q. Fan, ‘The Investment Climate in Post-Conflict Situations’ (2006) World Bank Policy Research Working Papers.

49 Mills and Fan, note 48; N. Santos, ‘Financing small, medium and micro enterprises in post-conflict situations’, Discussion Paper for the seminar ‘Public Private Partnership for the Development of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, Kinshasa, April 7, 2003. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.945.3642&rep=rep1&type=pdf (last accessed May 11, 2020).

50 Santos, note 49.

51 Mills and Fan, note 48; Santos, note 49.

52 Elbadawi, Kaltani, and Schmidt-Hebbel, note 31.

53 Rothstein, B. and Eek, D., ‘Political corruption and social trust: An experimental approach’ (2009) 21 Rationality and Society 81-112Google Scholar.

54 Acemoglu and Robinson, note 38; Acemoglu, D. and Robinson, J. A., Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty, 1st ed. (New York: Profile Books, 2012)Google Scholar.

55 Fearon, J. D., ‘Why Do Some Civil Wars Last So Much Longer than Others?’ (2004) 41 Journal of Peace Research 275–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. Winer and T. Roule, ‘Follow the money: The finance of illicit resource extraction’ (2003) In I. Bannon and P. Collier (eds.) Options and Actions (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003) 161-214.

56 Andreas, P., ‘Symbiosis Between Peace Operations and Illicit Business in Bosnia’ (2009) 16 International Peacekeeping 33–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; W. Baumol, ‘Entrepreneurship: Productive, unproductive, and destructive’ (1996) 7 Journal of Business Venturing 45-49.

57 Bannon, I. and Collier, P., Natural Resources and Violent Conflict: Options and Actions (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; P. E. Farmer et al., ‘Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine’ (2006) 3 PLoS Medicine 1686–1691; C. Reade and H.-J. Lee, ‘Organizational Commitment in Time of War: Assessing the Impact and Attenuation of Employee Sensitivity to Ethnopolitical Conflict’ (2012) 18 Journal of International Management 85–101.

58 Miklian, Schouten, and Ganson, note 11.

59 Coser, L., Continuities in the Study of Social Conflict (New York: The Free Press, 1967)Google Scholar; J. Galtung, ‘Violence, peace, and peace research’ (1969) 6 Journal of peace research 167-191; J. Galtung, ‘Twenty-Five Years of Peace Research: Ten Challenges and Some Responses’ (2006) 22 Theories of International Relations 38–61; R. Rummel, Understanding conflict and war: Vol. 4: War, power, peace (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); B. Fogarty, War, peace, and the social order (New York: Routledge, 2019); Azam and Mesnard, note 41; Bannon and Collier, note 57; Fort and Schipani, note 17; G. Spreitzer, ‘Giving peace a chance: organizational leadership, empowerment, and peace’ (2007) 28 Journal of Organizational Behavior 1077–1095; Wani, note 41.

60 Rapoport, A., ‘Peace, definitions and concepts of’ in Kurtz, L. and Turpin, J. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict (New York: Academic Press, 1999 ) 669-678Google Scholar.

61 Galtung, note 59; Anderson, note 60.

62 Galtung, note 59.

63 Anderson, note 60.

64 UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, note 28.

65 Anderson, note 60.

66 Miklian, J. and Medina Bickel, J. P., ‘Theorizing Business and Local Peacebuilding Through the “Footprints of Peace” Coffee Project in Rural Colombia’ (2020) 59 Business & Society 676-715CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Kolk, A. and Lenfant, F., ‘Cross-Sector Collaboration, Institutional Gaps, and Fragility: The Role of Social Innovation Partnerships in a Conflict-Affected Region’ (2015) 34 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 287–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar; A. Kolk and F. Lenfant, ‘Business–NGO Collaboration in a Conflict Setting’ (2012) 51 Business & Society 478–511.

68 Branzei, O. and Abdelnour, S., ‘Another day, another dollar: Enterprise resilience under terrorism in developing countries’ (2010) 41 Journal of International Business Studies 804–825CrossRefGoogle Scholar; U. Idemudia, ‘Oil Multinational Companies As Money Makers And Peace Makers: Lessons From Nigeria’ (2014) 8 Critical Studies on Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Sustainability 191-213.; N. Ralph, Peacemaking and the Extractive Industries (London: Routledge, 2017).

69 Katsos and Forrer, note 34; D. Miriyagalla, ‘Perceptions of Small Businesses and Youth of Employment and Peace-Building in the Conflict-Affected Region of Sri Lanka’ (2015) Business, Peace and Sustainable Development 9–30; Kanashiro, P. and Starik, M., ‘Business efforts, opportunities, and limits addressing the poor: A Brazilian case study’ (2016) 59 Business Horizons 471–479CrossRefGoogle Scholar; E. Marijnen and P. Schouten, ‘Electrifying the green peace? Electrification, conservation and conflict in Eastern Congo’ (2019) 19 Conflict, Security and Development 15–34.

70 Institute for Economics and Peace [IEP], ‘A Global Statistical Analysis on the Empirical Link Between Peace and Religion’ (2014) http://economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Peace-and-Religion-Report.pdf (last accessed May 17, 2020); HIIK, note 28.

71 UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, note 28.

72 HIIK, note 28.

73 Ramsbotham, O., Woodhouse, T., and Miall, H., Contemporary conflict resolution (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2011)Google Scholar; J. Miklian, ‘The Political Ecology of War in Maoist India’ (2012) 13 Politics, Religion & Ideology 37–41; HIIK, note 28.

74 Galtung, J., ‘On the Social Costs of Modernization. Social Disintegration, Atomie/Anomie and Social Development’ (1996) 27 Development and Change 379-413CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. C. North, J. J. Wallis, and B. R. Weingast, Violence and social orders: A conceptual framework for interpreting recorded human history (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Institute for Economics and Peace [IEP], note 70.

75 HIIK, note 28

76 Fort and Schipani, note 17.

77 Oetzel et al, note 6.

78 Milliken, F. J. et al., ‘Linking Workplace Practices to Community Engagement: The Case for Encouraging Employee Voice’ (2015) 29 Academy of Management Perspectives 405–421CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Spencer, J. W., ‘Spillovers and Crowding out in Developing Countries: The Impact Enterprise of Multinational Strategy on Indigenous enterprises’ (2008) 33 Academy of Management Review 341–361CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Buckley, P. J. and Ghauri, P. N., ‘Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy of multinational enterprises’ (2004) 35 Journal of International Business Studies 81–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Getz and Oetzel, note 33.

81 Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15.

82 Diamond, L. and McDonald, J. W., Multi-track diplomacy : a systems approach to peace (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1996)Google Scholar; M. K. Westermann-Behaylo, K. Rehbein, and T. Fort, ‘Enhancing the Concept of Corporate Diplomacy: Encompassing Political Corporate Social Responsibility, International Relations, and Peace Through Commerce’ (2015) 29 Academy of Management Perspectives 387–404.

83 Galtung, note 74; Montville, J., ‘Transnationalism and the role of track-two diplomacy’ (1991) in Thompson, W.S. et al. (eds), Approaches to Peace: An Intellectual Map (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 1992) 255Google Scholar; J. Oetzel, K. Getz, and S. Ladek, ‘The Role of Multinational Enterprises in Responding to Violent Conflict: A Conceptual Model and Framework for Research’ (2007) 44 American Business Law Journal 331; Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall, note 73.

84 Montville, note 83; Oetzel et al, note 6; Westermann-Behaylo et al note 82.

85 Kolk and Lenfant, note 67; Oetzel, J. and Doh, J. P., ‘MNEs and development: a review and reconceptualization’ (2009) 44 Journal of World Business 108–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar; F. R. Westley and H. Vredenburg, ‘Strategic Bridging: The Collaboration Between Environmentalists and Business in the Marketing of Green Products’ (1991) 27 Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 65–90.

86 Oetzel, Getz, and Ladek, note 83.

87 Lieberfeld, D., ‘Evaluating the Contributions of Track-Two Diplomacy to Conflict Termination in South Africa, 1984-90’ (2002) 39 Journal of Peace Research 355–372CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Westermann-Behaylo et al, note 82.

89 Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15; Dworkin and Schipani, note 9; Fort and Schipani, note 9.

90 Aguilera, R. V. and Rupp, D. E., ‘Putting the S Back in Corporate Social Responsibility: a Multi-Level Theory of Social Change in Organizations’ (2005) 32 Academy of management review 836–863CrossRefGoogle Scholar; G. Davies et al, Corporate reputation and competitiveness (London, UK: Routledge, 2003); R. E. Freeman and J. McVea, ‘A Stakeholder Approach to Strategic Management’ in M. A. Hitt, R. E. Freeman and J. S. Harrison (eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management, (London, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2017) 183–201.

91 Freeman, R. E., Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

92 Gunningham, N., Kagan, R., and Thornton, D., Shades of green: business, regulation, and environment (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

93 Oetzel and Getz note 18.

94 Milliken et al, note 78.

95 Emmelhainz, M. and Adams, R., ‘The Apparel Industry Response to “Sweatshop” Concerns: A Review and Analysis of Codes of Conduct’ (1999) 35 Journal of Supply Chain Management 51–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; A. Kolk and R. van Tulder, ‘Child Labor and Multinational Conduct: A Comparison of International Business andStakeholder Codes’ (2002) 36 Journal of Business Ethics 291–301; T. A. Steelman and J. Rivera, ‘Voluntary Environmental Programs in the United States: Whose Interests are Served?’ (2006) 19 Organization & Environment 505–526.

96 Anderson et al note 19; Guaqueta, A., ‘Occidental Petroleum, Cerrejon, and NGO partnerships in Colombia’ in Williams, O. (ed.) Peace Through Commerce: Responsible Corporate Citizenship and the Ideals of the United Nations Global Compact. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008)Google Scholar 381-402; D. A. O’Neill, ‘Impact Assessment, Transparency and Accountability – three keys to building sustainable partnerships between Business and its Stakeholders’ in O. Williams (ed.) Peace Through Commerce: Responsible Corporate Citizenship and the Ideals of the United Nations Global Compact. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008) 157-198.

97 Elbadawi and Sambanis, note 41; Bannon and Collier, note 57.

98 Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15; , J. Joseph et al, 'Entrepreneurship, poverty reduction, and peace: exploring transformative entrepreneurship in conflict zones' (2019) 21 ICSB World Conference Proceedings, The International Council for Small Business 2019 World CongressGoogle Scholar.

99 Hoelscher, K. and Rustad, S. A., ‘CSR and social conflict in the Brazilian extractive sector’ (2019) 19 Conflict, Security and Development 99–119CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. Jamali and R. Mirshak, ‘Business-conflict linkages: Revisiting MNCs, CSR, and conflict’ (2010) 93 Journal of Business Ethics 443–464; J. A. Brown, C. Clark, and A. F. Buono, ‘The United Nations Global Compact: Engaging Implicit and Explicit CSR for Global Governance’ (2018) 147 Journal of Business Ethics 721–734; D. Haski-Leventhal, ‘Editorial: From CSR and CSV to Business and Peace’ (2014) 4 Business, Peace and Sustainable Development 3–6.

100 Wettstein and Schrempf-Stirling, note 3; Hussain, W. and Moriarty, J., ‘Accountable to Whom? Rethinking the Role of Corporations in Political CSR’ (2018) 149 Journal of Business Ethics 519–534CrossRefGoogle Scholar; A. G. Scherer and G. Palazzo, ‘The New Political Role of Business in a Globalized World: A Review of a New Perspective on CSR and its Implications for the Firm, Governance, and Democracy’ (2011) 48 Journal of Management Studies 899–931; A. G. Scherer, A. Rasche, G. Palazzo, and A. Spicer, ‘Managing for Political Corporate Social Responsibility: New Challenges and Directions for PCSR 2.0’ (2016) 53 Journal of Management Studies 273–298; N. Mueller-Hirth, ‘Business and Social Peace Processes: How Can Insights from Post-conflict Studies Help CSR to Address Peace and Reconciliation?’ in S. Vertigans and S. Idowu (eds) Corporate Social Responsibility. CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance (London, UK: Springer, 2016) 137–153.

101 Giuliani, E. and Macchi, C., ‘Multinational corporations’ economic and human rights impacts on developing countries: a review and research agenda’ (2013) 38 Cambridge Journal of Economics 479–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar; F. Wettstein, E. Giuliani, G. D. Santangelo, and G. K. Stahl, ‘International business and human rights: A research agenda’ (2019) 54 Journal of World Business 54–65.

102 McNulty, R. E., ‘Peace Dialogue: The Global Compact’s Inaugural Business for Peace Annual Event Prelude to a Movement?’ (2014) 4 Business, Peace and Sustainable Development 113-122CrossRefGoogle Scholar; O. Williams, Peace Through Commerce: Responsible Corporate Citizenship and the Ideals of the United Nations Global Compact (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2011).

103 Rasche, A. and Kell, G., The United Nations Global Compact: Achievements, trends and challenges (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Wettstein et al, note 101.

105 McNulty, note 102.

106 Wettstein and Schrempf-Stirling, note 3.

107 B. Miller et al, 'A Seat at the Table: Capacities and Limitations of Private Sector Peacebuilding' (2019), https://ssrn.com/abstract=3311737 (last accessed May 17, 2020); Miklian et al, note 11.

108 Hsieh, N., ‘Business Responsibilities for Human Rights: A Commentary on Arnold’ (2017) 2 Business and Human Rights Journal 297–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Miklian, Alluri, and Katsos, note 6.

110 Fort, T. L., Prophets, Profits, and Peace: The Positive Role of Business in Promoting Religious Tolerance, 1st edition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008)Google Scholar; Fort, note 10; D. G. Arnold, ‘Corporations and Human Rights Obligations’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 255–75; P. H. Werhane, ‘Corporate Moral Agency and the Responsibility to Respect Human Rights in the UN Guiding Principles: Do Corporations Have Moral Rights?’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 5–20.

111 Hsieh, note 108.

112 Wettstein, F., ‘The Duty to Protect: Corporate Complicity, Political Responsibility, and Human Rights Advocacy’ (2010) 96 Journal of Business Ethics 33–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fort, note 10.

113 Wood, S., ‘The Case for Leverage-Based Corporate Human Rights Responsibility’ (2012) 22 Business Ethics Quarterly 63–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114 Banfield, J. et al, Conflict-Sensitive Business Practice: Guidance for Extractive Industries (London, UK: International Alert, 2005)Google Scholar; H. C. Appel, ‘Walls and white elephants: Oil extraction, responsibility, and infrastructural violence in Equatorial Guinea’ (2012) 13 Ethnography 439-465; Winer and Roule, note 55; Hoelscher and Rustad, note 99; P. Lujala, S. A. Rustad, and S. Kettenmann, ‘Engines for Peace? Extractive Industries, Host Countries, and the International Community in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding’ (2016) 7 Natural Resources 239–250; Ralph, note 68; A. Valencia, Human Rights Trade-Offs in Times of Economic Growth: The Long-Term Capability Impacts of Extractive-Led Development (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

115 Fort, note 10; Katsos, note 6.

116 Aizawa, M. and Tripathi, S., ‘Beyond Rana Plaza: Next Steps for the Global Garment Industry and Bangladeshi Manufacturers’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 145–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. Reinecke and J. Donaghey, ‘After Rana Plaza: Building Coalitional Power for Labour Rights Between Unions and (Consumption-based) Social Movement Organisations’ (2015) 22 Organization 720–740; Emmelhainz and Adams, note 95.

117 Davitti, D., ‘The Rise of Private Military and Security Companies in European Union Migration Policies: Implications under the UNGPs’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights Journal 33–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; N. Deitelhoff, M. Feil, S. Fischer, A. Haidvogl, K. D. Wolf, and M. Zimmer, ‘Business in Zones of Conflict and Global Security Governance: What has been Learnt and Where to from Here?’ in N. Deitelhoff and K.D. Wolf (eds.) Corporate Security Responsibility? Global Issues Series (London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010) 202–26; D. Mayer, ‘Peaceful Warriors: Private Military Security Companies and the Quest for Stable Societies’ (2009) 89 Journal of Business Ethics 387–401.

118 Schliemann, C. and Terwindt, C., ‘Guest Editorial: Agribusiness and Accountability’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights JournalCrossRefGoogle Scholar 317–21; K. Boudreaux and S. Schang, ‘Threats of, and Responses to, Agribusiness Land Acquisitions’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights Journal 365–71.

119 Forrer, J. and Seyle, C. (eds.), The Role of Business in the Responsibility to Protect (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

120 Fort, note 10.

121 Getz and Oetzel, note 33; Oh and Oetzel, note 33; Oetzel and Miklian, note 12; Miklian, note 6.

122 Santoro, M. A., ‘Business and Human Rights in Historical Perspective’ (2015) 14 Journal of Human RightsCrossRefGoogle Scholar 155–61; Forrer and Seyle, note 119.

123 Sison, A. J. G., 'Virtue Ethics and Natural Law Responses to Human Rights Quandaries in Business (2018), 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 211-232CrossRefGoogle Scholar; T. L. Kirkebo and M. Langford, ‘The Commitment Curve: Global Regulation of Business and Human Rights’ (2018) 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 157-185.

124 Austin and Wennmann, note 40.

125 Miklian, Schouten, and Ganson, note 11; Oetzel and Miklian, note 12.

126 Bishop, J. D., ‘The Limits of Corporate Human Rights Obligations and the Rights of For-Profit Corporations’ (2012) 22 Business ethics quarterly 119–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

127 McCorquodale, R. et al, ‘Human Rights Due Diligence in Law and Practice: Good Practices and Challenges for Business Enterprises’ (2017) 2 Business and Human Rights Journal 195–224CrossRefGoogle Scholar; B. Fasterling, ‘Human Rights Due Diligence as Risk Management: Social Risk Versus Human Rights Risk’ (2017) 2 Business and Human Rights Journal 225–47; N. Götzmann, ‘Human Rights Impact Assessment of Business Activities: Key Criteria for Establishing a Meaningful Practice’ (2017) 2 Business and Human Rights Journal 87–108; B. Fasterling and G. Demuijnck, ‘Human Rights in the Void? Due Diligence in the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (2013) 116 Journal of Business Ethics 799–814; J. Bonnitcha and R. McCorquodale, ‘The Concept of “Due Diligence” in the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (2017) 28 European Journal of International Law 899–919.

128 Hsieh, note 108; Deva et al, note 1.

129 Ganson, B. and Wennmann, A., Business and Conflict in Fragile States: The Case for Pragmatic Solutions (London, UK: Routledge, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; B. Ganson, 'Business and Peace: A Need for New Questions and Systems Perspective' (2017) https://www.cdacollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/A-Need-for-New-Questions-and-Systems-Perspectives.pdf (last accessed May 18, 2020)

130 Ganson, note 129; Ganson and Wennmann, note 129.

131 B. Ganson, Management in Complex Environments: Questions for Leaders (2013); Ganson and Wennmann, note 129.

132 Miller, B., Bardouille, D., and Cechvala, S., ‘Business and Armed Non-State Actors: Dilemmas, Challenges and a Way Forward’ (2014) 3 Business, Peace and Sustainable Development 7–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Miller et al, note 107.

133 Katsos and Forrer, note 34; Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15; Joseph et al, note 98.

134 Deva et al, note 1.

135 McCorquodale et al, note 127; Sison, note 123; Clapham, A. and Jerbi, S., ‘Categories of Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses’ (2001) 24 Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 339Google Scholar; J. Clough, ‘Punishing the Parent: Corporate Criminal Complicity in Human Rights Abuses’ (2008) 33 Brooklyn Journal of International Law 899.

136 Chambers, R., ‘The Unocal Settlement: Implications for the Developing Law on Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses’ (2005) 13 Human Rights Brief 4Google Scholar.; S. Mirzabegian, ‘Big Tobacco v Australia: Challenges to Plain Packaging’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights Journal 177–84; M. Yoboué and J. Kaufman, ‘Inside the Dirty Fuels Campaign: Lessons for Business and Human Rights’ (2018) 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 291–297; J. Nabuco and L. Aleixo, ‘Rights Holders’ Participation and Access to Remedies: Lessons Learned from the Doce River Dam Disaster’ (2019) 4 Business and Human Rights Journal 147–53.

137 Galtung, note 59; Fogarty, note 59; Rapoport, note 60; Anderson, note 60; Galtung, note 59.

138 Forrer, J. J. and Katsos, J. E., ‘Business and peace in the buffer condition’ (2015) 29 Academy of Management Perspectives 438–450CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Le Billon, note 38; Ganson, note 129.

139 J. Katsos, What are the ethical obligations of private economic actors in conflict zones? (2019) https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm (accessed 4 May 2020).

140 Fort, note 10; Katsos and Fort, note 34; Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15.

141 Fort, note 10; J. J. Forrer and T. L. Fort, ‘The PACO index’ (2016) 59 Business Horizons 533–538; Fort, note 10.

142 Westermann-Behaylo et al note 82.

143 A. Scherer and G. Palazzo, ‘The new political role of business in a globalized world: A review of a new perspective on CSR and its implications for the firm, governance, and democracy' (2011) 4 Journal of Management Studies 899-931.

144 Schrempf-Stirling, J., Palazzo, G., and Phillips, R. A., ‘Historic Corporate Social Responsibility’ (2016) 41 Academy of Management Review 700–719CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

145 Kolk, A. and Lenfant, F., ‘Hybrid business models for peace and reconciliation’ (2016) 59 Business Horizons 503–524CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

146 Jamali and Mirshak, note 99.

147 Idemudia, note 68.

148 Miklian, Schouten, and Ganson, note 11.

149 Schrempf-Stirling, J., ‘Nokia Siemens Networks: Just Doing Business - or Supporting an Oppressive Regime?’ (2011) 103 Journal of Business Ethics 95–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar; V. Azarova, ‘Business and Human Rights in Occupied Territory: The un Database of Business Active in Israel’s Settlements’ (2018) 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 187-209; Guaqueta, note 96; A. Guáqueta, ‘Harnessing corporations: lessons from the voluntary principles on security and human rights in Colombia and Indonesia’ (2013) 6 Journal of Asian Public Policy 129–146.

150 Katsos and AlKafaji, note 15; Katsos and Fort, note 34.

151 White, J. A., ‘Globalisation, Divestment and Human Rights in Burma’ (2004) 14 Journal of Corporate Citizenship 47–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; I. Holliday, ‘Doing Business with Rights Violating Regimes Corporate Social Responsibility and Myanmar’s Military Junta’ (2005) 61 Journal of Business Ethics 329–42.

152 J. Ruggie, ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Business and Human Rights’ (2008) 3 Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 189–212.

153 Graf, A. and Iff, A., ‘Respecting Human Rights in Conflict Regions: How to Avoid the “Conflict Spiral”’ (2017) 2 Business and Human Rights Journal 109–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; K. Buhmann, ‘Neglecting the Proactive Aspect of Human Rights Due Diligence? A Critical Appraisal of the EU’s Non-Financial Reporting Directive as a Pillar One Avenue for Promoting Pillar Two Action’ (2018) 3 Business and Human Rights Journal 23–45.

154 Miller at al, note 107.

155 Galtung, note 59; Galtung, note 74; Galtung, note 59.

156 Ruggie, note 152.

157 Ganson, note 129.

158 Wettstein and Schrempf-Stirling, note 3.