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Zakāt in Imāmi Shī'ī jurisprudence, from the tenth to the sixteenth century A.D.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 December 2009

Norman Calder
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Extract

Māwardī said of zakāt that it was paid ṭahratan li-ahlihā ma'ūnatan li-ahl al-sahman, as a purification for the donor and a support for the recipient. It has thus a dual aspect. As a social tax it provides for the transfer of wealth from certain productive classes of society to certain poor or non-productīve classes. As a religious duty it is of essentially the same type as ṣalāt, ḥajj, etc., afarīḓa 'ala l-'ayn. Like these it is a ritual whose correct performance involves an attention to precise details of quantity (naṣāb), timing (al-ḥawl), and intention (niyya) which may be irrelevant or even inimical to the optimum fulfilment of the social aim.

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Articles
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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 44 , Issue 3 , October 1981 , pp. 468 - 480
Copyright
Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies 1981

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References

1 Māwardi, , Al-Aḥkām al-Sulṭāniyya, ed. Enger, , Bonn, 1853, 195Google Scholar; cf. also Aghnides, N. P., Mohammedan theories of finance, New York, 1916, p. 323, n. 1Google Scholar.

2 See, for further details, mostly common to Sunnīs and Shi'īs, Aghnides, , op. cit., 203–95Google Scholar.

3 al-Shāfi'ī, Muhammad ibn Idrīs, Kitāb al-Umm, Cairo, 1388, 1, 70Google Scholar.

4 ibid., 15.

5 ibid., 19.

6 ibid., 61.

7 ibid., 68; cf. Yūsuf, Abū, Kitāb al-Kharāj, Cairo, 1352, 81Google Scholar.

8 The major Imāmī fuqahā' in the period under discussion, and those of their works which constitute the main sources for the present study are: al-Ṭusi, M. ibn Ḥasan (d. 460/1067): Kitāb al-Nihdya, Beirut, 1970Google Scholar, Kitāb al-Mabsūṭ, Persia, 1271Google Scholar, n.p. (references to Ṭūsī, Mabsūṭt, zakāt, 7 indicate the seventh page of the section on zakāt); al-ḤHillī, M. ibn Aḥhmad ibn Idrīs (d. 598/1202): Kitāb Sarā'ir al-Islām, Persia, 1270/1854Google Scholar, n.p. (references given to British Museum edition where the incipit is p. 2); al-ḥilli, Ja'far ibn Ḥasan al-Muḥhaqqiq (d. 676/1277): Sharā'i' al-Islām, 4 vols., Najaf, 1389/1969Google Scholar, Al-Mukhtaṣar al-Nāfi', Cairo, 1376Google Scholar (Qum reprint); al-ḥilli, Ḥasan ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Muṭtahhar (d. 726/1325): Kitāb Mukhialif al-Shi'a, 4 vols. in 1, Persia, 1324/1906Google Scholar, Kitāb Qawd'iā al-Aḥkām, in Karaki, , Jami' al-Maqāṭid (see below), Kitāb Taḥrir al-Aḥkdm, 2 vols., Persia, 1314/1896Google Scholar; Shams al-Din ibn Makki al-Shahīd al-Awwal (d. 786/1384–5): Al-Lum'at al-Dimashqiyya, in Shahid II, Rawḍda (see below); 'Alī ibn Ḥusayn ibn 'Abd al-'Alī al-Karaki (d. 937/1530–1 or 940/1533–4): Kitāb Jāmi' al-Maqāṣid fī sharḥal-Qawā'id, 2 vols., Tehran, 1395Google Scholar; al-Thāni, Zayn al-Dīn ibn 'Alī al-Shahīd (d.960/1559): Masālik al-if hām fi sharṣ Sharā'i' al-Islām, 2 vols., Persia, 1310 and 1314Google Scholar, Al-Rawḍat al-Bahiyya fi sharḥ al-Lum'at al-Dimashqiyya, Tabriz, 1271Google Scholar.

9 Ṭūsī, Nihāya, 185Google Scholar. For further discussion of the term sāqiṭ in this kind of context, see al-Murtaḍā, al-Sharīf, Al-Shāfī, Tehran, 1301/1884, 40–41Google Scholar, and Ṭūsī, , Kitāb al-Ohayba, Najaf, 1385, 64Google Scholar; acceptance of the term sāqiṭ in this kind of context would seem to have been first justified by Ṭūsī.

10 Ṭūsī, Mabsūṭ, zakāt, 17–18Google Scholar.

11 An indication that Sunnī juristic works were part of the juristic pool drawn upon by Shi'ī jurists: cf. Yūsuf, Abũ, op. cit., 81Google Scholar.

12 Muḥhaqqiq, , Sharā'i', i, 162Google Scholar. (Ṭūsī also acknowledged the validity of defensive jihād, but this did not affect his discussion of zakāt.)

13 'Allāma, , Taḥrīr, 68Google Scholar.

14 idem, Qawā'id, 22.

15 Shahīd, I , in Rawḍa, 51Google Scholar.

16 Shahīd, II , Rawḍa, 51Google Scholar.

17 See Calder, , ‘Judicial authority in Imāmī Shi'ī jurisprudence’, British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, vi, 1979, 107Google Scholar.

18 Shahīd, II , Rawḍa, 49, 51Google Scholar.

19 cf. Calder, art. cit.; 'Abd al-Jalīl al-Qazwīnī, Kitāb al-Naqḍ, ed. Muḥaddith, , Tehran, 1331/1952, 164Google Scholar.

20 Shāfi'ī, Umm I, 70Google Scholar.

21 For both Sunnīs and Shī'īs there was much discussion about whether the mu'allafa might, or might not be non-Muslim. See e.g. Shāfi'ī, , Umm, 61 and 72–3Google Scholar: the different opinions there expressed indicate the composite nature of the Umm; see also Ṭūsī, , MabsūὭ, zakāt, 17Google Scholar; note that Shafi'i is cited as source of this discussion; his opinion thereafter became part of Imāmī ikhtilāf; cf. note 11 above.

22 For this term see Lambton, A. K. S., ‘A nineteenth century view of jihad’, SI, xxxii, 1970, 182Google Scholar.

23 See Ṭūsī, Nihāya, 185, 192Google Scholar; Mabsūṭ, zakāt, 16; Idrīs, Ibn, Sarā'ir, 106, 109Google Scholar;Muḥaqqiq, , Mukhtaṣar, 59Google Scholar.

24 'Allāma, , Taḥrir, 69Google Scholar.

25 idem, Mukhtcdif, ii, 11; cf. Idrīs, Ibn, Sarā'ir, 106Google Scholar.

26 Shahīd, II , Masālik, I, 61Google Scholar.

27 idem, Rawḍa, 50. Denial of qiyās was a well-established slogan of Imāmī jurisprudence.

28 See for niyya Schacht, , Introduction to Islamic law, Oxford, 1964, 116–18Google Scholar.

29 'Allāma, , Taḥrīr, 67Google Scholar.

30 Shāfi'ī, , Umm, i, 18–19Google Scholar.

31 ibid., 19.

32 For the distinction between ẓāhir and bāṭin goods, see Aghnides, , op. cit., 296–7Google Scholar.

38 Māwardī, , op. cit., 195Google Scholar.

34 ibid., 209.

35 In al-Shirbīnī, M. ibn al-Khaṭib,Mughnī al-Muḥtāj fī sharḥh al-Minhāj, 4 vols., Cairo, 1308, I, 402Google Scholar.

36 ibid.

37 ibid., 403.

38 cf. Calder, art. cit., and sources cited ad notes 8 and 9.

39 See for all this, ṬTūsī, Nihāya, 185Google Scholar; Mabsūṭ, zakāt, 13 (ad niyya), 16, 20.

40 al-Murtaḍā, Al-Sharīf, Jumal al-'ilm wa'l-'amal, with commentary by al-Barraj, Ibn, Mashad, 1974, 269Google Scholar.

41 Cit. in 'Allāma, , Mukhtalif, ii, 16Google Scholar. (This text is only available to me in this rather late compendium.)

42 Muḥaqqiq, , Sharā'i', I, 164–5Google Scholar.

43 cf. idem, Mukhtaṣsar, 60.

44 ibid., and Sharā'i', I, 165.

45 'Allāma, , Qawā'id, 23Google Scholar.

46 idem, Taḥrīr, 67.

47 cf. Calder, art. cit.

48 Shahīd, I , in Rawḍa, 50Google Scholar.

49 Shahīd, I , in Rawḍa, 50Google Scholar.

50 See note 9 above.

51 Above, p. 473.

52 Ṭūsī, , Mabsūṭ, zakāt, 13Google Scholar; cf. Shāfi'ī, , Umm, I, 19Google Scholar; another example of Shāfi'ī's influence on Imāmī furū'; cf. notes 11 and 21 above.

53 'Allāma, , Taḥrīr, 67Google Scholar; Mukhtalif ii, 21.

54 Shahīd, I , in Rawḍa, 51Google Scholar.

55 Above, p. 470.

56 Shahīd, I , in Rawḍa, 50–1Google Scholar.

57 For whom, see Khwānṣārī, , Rawḍāt al-Jannāt, Tehran, 1306, 402–7Google Scholar; Glassen, E., ‘Schah Isma'il und die Theologen seiner Zeit’, Der Islam, 48, 1971–1972CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Karakī, , Jāmi', 130–1Google Scholar, ad Friday Prayer; see also ad jihād, 187. The definition of nā'ib khāṣṣ given by Lambton, A. K. S., op. cit., 181Google Scholar, footnote, reflects a later development. The use of the term nā'ib khāṣṣ in the Risāla Jihādiyya is certainly to be understood as a reference to the pre-Ghayba period, or to the sufarā' Kohlberg, , ‘The development of the Imāmī Shī'ī doctrine of jihād’, ZDMG, 1976, 82–6Google Scholar.

59 Above, p. 469.

60 See my forthcoming study, ‘Accommodation and revolution in Imāmī Shī'ī jurisprudence: Khumaynī and the classical tradition’.

61 should like to thank Professor A. K. S. Lambton and Dr. John Wansbrough for their helpful suggestions in the preparation of this study.