^{page 503 note 1} An abbreviated version of this article was read as a paper at the 8th International Congress of the History of Religions, held in Rome in April 1955.

^{page 503 note 2} See article by Bidhubhusan Ghosh, ‘Ganga Bhaglrathlr Prabahapath’, Sdhitya-Parisad- Patrika, pt. 30, no. 4, 1953.

^{page 504 note 1} Author of many works of criticism. He also collected many MSS. His History of Bengali Language and Literature, though written in 1911, has not yet been superseded.

^{page 504 note 2} S. B. Das Gupta, Obscure Religious Cults, Univ. Calcutta, 1946, Intro., p. xxxiii, states as follows: ‘Bengali, along with other modern Indo-Aryan languages, grew up with the tenets of some minor religious sects, which rose mostly outside the circle of the high class people and were characterized by a general tendency of protest against current orthodox religious systems. But this religious zeal of the masses has been responsible for the copious growth of the vernacular literature in spite of the derision and opposition of the higher communities, who sometimes threatened these revolutionaries with curses of hell’ (italics mine).

^{page 505 note 1} ivayan, by Ramesvar Bhattacarya, 2nd edn., printed Cal., 1903, Nutabihari Ray; p. 74 seq.

^{page 505 note2} Sunya Puran, ed. for the Banglya Sahitya Parisad by Nagendranath Basu, 1907. Ascribed to Ramai Pandit, who according to D. C. Sen, Bengali Language and Literature, p. 30, lived in the 10th century. The poem could not have been written as early as this, though some of ite material is very early.

^{page 505 note 3} Sunya Purdn, ed. Basu, pp. 107–15.

^{page 506 note 1} D. C. Sen, Typical Selections from Old Bengali Literature, vol. 1, p. 111

^{page 506 note 2} S. B. Das Gupta, Obscure Religious Cults, Intro., p. xxxi: ‘ The human interest of the life- J long struggle of Cand Sadagar of the Manasa-mangalas has been minimized by the undercurrent of the religious tone—by the fact that it really represents the struggle of decaying Saivism of Bengal against the growth and spread of Saktaism represented by the Manasa cult’.

^{page 506 note 3} Vipradas's Manasd-Vijaya, ed. Sukumar Sen, pub. 1953, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.

^{page 507 note 1} op. cit., Intro., p. xviii. The reference is to the puranic introductory cantos in Vamsidas's poem. Manasa becomes a snake and bites Candi. The poem is late, 18th century, and this episode is therefore of doubtful authenticity.

^{page 507 note 2} Vipradas: Canto 4, sections 14–16.

^{page 507 note 3} The sij tree is also known as the manasa tree. It has not been identified. Sen, has the term euphorbia nivvlia; S. C. Mitra, Bengali Dictionary, names it euphorbia neriifolia in one place, and euphorbia antiquorum in another. Y. C. Kay, Dictionary of the Bengali Language,gives it as euphorbia tiruealli

^{page 507 note 4} Vipradas, 4,16: ‘ rakhiya

^{page 508 note 1} ‘keriche bhutere thana derektere tele’.

^{page 508 note 2} Sukumar Sen, p. 301, speaking of Visnu Pal's mangalkavya, says, ‘ The cowherds worshipped the goddess in any place’.

^{page 508 note 3} Vipradas, 5, 10: ‘ dui bedhu leiya mengelegite gay/ bifale bajena keri nana drehye leyya/ menesa-cerene puje heregite heyya’.

^{page 508 note 4} Vipradas: 5, 10–2.

^{page 508 note 5} 5 and 6.

^{page 508 note 6} The combination of these two different occupations in the person of Cando leads me to wonder whether there may have been originally two distinct legends which later writers have united in him. If there is any truth in this suggestion, it is probable that the farmer-hero legend was the earlier of the two.

^{page 509 note 1} D. C. Sen, Bengali Language and Literature, p. 256.

^{page 509 note 2} D. C. Sen, Bengali Language and Literature, p. 255. ‘ In the month of SVaban the villages of Lower Bengal present a unique scene. This is the time when Manasa Devi is worshipped. Hundreds of men in Sylhet, Backergunge, and other districts throng to the river side or to the temples to recite the songs of Behula. The vigorous boat-races attending the festivity and the enthusiasm that characterizes the recitation of these songs cannot but strike an observer with an idea of their vast influence over the masses. There are sometimes a hundred oars in each of the long narrow boats, the rowers singing in loud chorus as they pull them with all their might. The boats move with the speed of an arrow, even flying past the river-steamers. These festivities of Manasa Puja sometimes occupy a whole month, during which men keep vigil and recite the songs before the goddess, and are generally known as Bhasan Yatra.’

^{page 510 note 1} Kavikankan-Caxidi, ed. D. C. Sen, etc., pub. Cal. Univ., 1924, vol. I, pp. 214–5.

^{page 510 note 2} vol. n, pp. 863–4.

^{page 511 note 1} Asuto? Bhattacarya: Banla Mangallcavyer Itihas, p. 299 seq.

^{page 511 note 2} See also S. C. Bay: Oraon Religion and Customs, Calcutta, 1928, pp. 60–7; and The Oraons ofChota Nagpur, pub. Calcutta, 1915, pp. 220–1, 224–8, 235, 239–1.

^{page 511 note 3} Kavikanhan-Oaridi, vol. I, pp. 331–2.

^{page 511 note 4} vol. n, pp. 863–4.

^{page 511 note 5} V. A. Smith, Oxford History of India, 2nd edn., p. 185.

^{page 513 note 1} D. C. Sen, Typical Bengali Selections, vol. I, pp. 156–7.

^{page 513 note 2} V. A. Smith, pub. 180.

^{page 513 note 3} Vipradas, vid. sup., canto i, sections 6–11.

^{page 513 note 4} canto rv, sections 1–9.

^{page 513 note 5} canto rv, sections 1–9.

^{page 513 note 6} canto vi, section 1.

^{page 514 note 1} Ketakadas Ksemananda's Manasamangal, ed. J. M. Bhattacarya, 2nd edn., 1950, pub. Cal. Univ.

^{page 514 note 2} Vipradas's Manasd-Vijaya: canto 13, sections 8–10.

^{page 516 note 1} K. G. Bhandakar, Vaisnavism, Saivism, and Minor Religious Systems, Triibner, Strassburg, 1913, p. 142 seq.

^{page 517 note 1} Saundarya-Lahan, ed. S. S. iSastrl and T. R. S. Ayyangar, pub. Theosophical Publishing House, Madras, 1937, p. 8, sloka 1. ‘Sivah saktya yukto yadi bhavati saktah prabhavitum na ced evam devo na khalu kusalah spanditum api’ Trans.: ‘Only if conjoint with the Sakti would Siva earn the privilege to become overlord; otherwise the God is not able even to stir’.