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Behavioural mechanisms influencing use of plants with secondary metabolites by herbivores

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2018

Frederick D. Provenza*
Affiliation:
Department of Forest, Range and Wildlife Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT USA84322-5230
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Summary

Diets and habitats that allow animals to select among alternatives enable individuals to better meet needs for nutrients and to better cope with toxins. All plants contain toxins, and the amount of toxin an animal can ingest depends on the kinds and amounts of nutrients and toxins in the forages on offer. Nutrients and toxins both cause animals to satiate, and excesses of nutrients, nutrient imbalances, and toxins all limit food intake. Thus, individuals can better meet their needs for nutrients and regulate their intake of toxins when offered a variety of foods that differ in nutrients and toxins than when constrained to a single food, even if the food is “nutritionally balanced.” Food intake and preference also depend on differences in how individual animals are built morphologically and how they function physiologically, and marked variation is common even among closely related animals in needs for nutrients and abilities to cope with toxins. Transient food aversions compound the inefficiency of single–food diets – whether in confinement, on pastures, or on rangelands – by depressing intake among individual animals, even if they are suited “on average” to that nutrient or toxin profile. Thus, feeding and grazing practices that allow producers to capitalize on the individuality of animals are likely to improve performance of the herd by enabling the uniqueness of individuals to become manifest. Finally, past experiences play a crucial role in an animal's propensity to learn to eat different foods. When herbivores are allowed to eat only the most preferred plants, they are not likely to learn to mix foods high in nutrients with foods that contain toxins. Conversely, herbivores encouraged to eat all plants in an area are more likely to learn to eat mixes of plants that mitigate toxicity. Experienced animals that have learned to eat a variety of foods that differ in nutrients and toxins do so even when nutritious alternatives are available, whereas naive animals familiar only with the nutritious alternatives eat only that subset of familiar foods. Different systems of management alter how animals forage. Continuous grazing at low stock densities encourages selectivity and reduces diet and habitat breadth, whereas short-duration grazing at high stock densities increases diet and habitat breadth. Thus, what was traditionally considered proper grazing management – rotational grazing at low stock densities – may have trained generations of livestock to “eat the best and leave the rest” thus inadvertently accelerating a decline in biodiversity and an increase in the abundance of less desirable plant species.

Resumen

Resumen

Dietas y hábitat que permiten a los animales seleccionar de entre alternativas permite a los individuos alcanzar lo mejor posible sus necesidades de nutrientes y tolerar lo mejor posible a las toxinas. Todas las plantas contienen toxinas y la cantidad de toxinas que un animal puede ingerir depende del tipo y cantidad de nutrientes y toxinas en los forrajes que se ofrecen. Ambos, nutrientes y toxinas, causan que los animales se sacien, de igual manera, los excesos de nutrientes, desbalances nutricionales y toxinas limitan todos ellos la ingesta de alimento. Por lo tanto, los individuos pueden alcanzar mejor sus necesidades de nutrientes y regular su ingesta de toxinas cuando se les ofrece una variedad de alimentos, que difieren en nutrientes y toxinas, que cuando son limitados a un solo alimento, aún cuando este alimento esté “nutricionalmente balanceado”. La ingesta de alimento y la preferencia también dependen de variaciones individuales en la forma en que los animales están construidos morfológicamente y como estos funcionan fisiológicamente, y una marcada variación es común, aún entre animales cercanamente relacionados, en sus necesidades de nutrientes y su habilidad para soportar a las toxinas. Las aversiones transitorias de alimento complican las ineficacias de las dietas de alimentos-únicos – ya sea en confinamiento, en pasturas ó en agostadero – deprimiendo la ingesta entre animales individuales, aún cuando estén acostumbrados “en promedio” a ese perfil de nutriente ó toxina. Por lo tanto, las prácticas de alimentación y pastoreo que permiten a los productores capitalizar en la individualidad de los animales podrían mejorar el desempeño del hato al permitir que la singularidad de los individuos se haga manifiesta. Finalmente, las experiencias pasadas juegan un papel crucial en la propensión de un animal a aprender a comer comidas diferentes. Cuando se le permite a los herbívoros comer solo las plantas más preferidas, estos posiblemente no aprenderán a mezclar comidas altas en nutrientes con comidas que contienen toxinas. A la inversa, los herbívoros que son animados a comer todas las plantas en un área son más propensos a aprender a comer mezclas de plantas que mitigan la toxicidad. Los animales experimentados que han aprendido a comer una variedad de alimentos que difieren en nutrientes y toxinas lo hacen aún cuando alternativas nutritivas están disponibles, mientras que los animales sin experiencia familiarizados solamente con las alternativas nutritivas comen solamente este grupo de alimentos que le son familiares. Los diferentes sistemas de manejo alteran el cómo los animales forrajean. El pastoreo continuo con bajas cargas animales favorece la selectividad y reduce la amplitud de la dieta y hábitat, mientras que el pastoreo de corta duración con altas cargas animales incrementan la amplitud de la dieta y el hábitat. Por lo tanto, lo que fue considerado tradicionalmente como un manejo de pastoreo adecuado - pastoreo rotacional con bajas cargas animales – pueden haber entrenado a generaciones de ganado a “comer lo mejor y dejar el resto” ocasionando inadvertidamente una acelerada reducción en la biodiversidad y un incremento en la abundancia de especies de plantas menos deseables.

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Copyright
Copyright © British Society of Animal Science 2006

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