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Invisible Austria: Canada's View 1938–1959

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2009

Robert H. Keyserlingk
Robert H. Keyserlingk
Affiliation:
University of Ottawa
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Extract

Ambiguity and ambivalence may be legitimate tools for diplomats and politicians, but not for historians. On the surface, Canada's Austrian policy between the 1938 Anschluβ and its 1959 accession to the 1955 Austrian State Treaty was equivocal and obscure. Canada appeared indecisive or vacillating on the subject of Austria after 1938 and again after 1945. In 1948 Canada stoutly announced that it had never recognized the Anschluβ nor been at war with Austria. What did this sudden declaration, unique within the Commonwealth, mean? Why did Canada then wait until 1956 to name an ambassador to Austria and until 1959 to sign the State Treaty? A fog hangs over the subject and opinions differ radically. Experts wander aimlessly through vague statements and interpretations, no longer even agreed on when, before or after World War II, Canada and Austria first entered into official diplomatic relations with each other.

Type
The Republics: Affairs Domestic and Foreign
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , January 1984 , pp. 149 - 177
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 1984

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References

1 Canadian secretary of state for external affairs (hereafter SSEA) to J. A. Glen, Minister of Mines and Resources (whose ministry contained the Immigration Branch), 22 Jan. 1948. Later repeated in the House of Commons. Department of External Affairs Archives (hereafter DEA) 84447–40.

Most sources for this article are found in the National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, which are referred to in the footnotes as NAC. Department of External Affairs files from the National Archives are referred to as NAC DEA, while those still in the departmental archives at the time of this research are noted simply as DEA. Special thanks for valuable advice is expressed to Don Page, John Hilliker, Dacre Cole of the Historical Section, Department of External Affairs; to Dr. Harald Miltner and Dr. Christian Jaekl of the Austrian Embassy, Ottawa; to Professor Peyton Lyon, who covered the Austrian and German desk in the fifties at External Affairs; and Mr. Frangois Carle, who later held the same position. Financial support through a Multicultural Grant from the Canadian Secretary of State is gratefully acknowledged.

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32 Defence ofCanada Regulations (Ottawa: J.O. Patenaude, 1939), 13.Google Scholar 1941 edition, 7.

33 Regulation 26A, Defence of Canada Regulations (1941), 35.

34 Regulation 26B, ibid. For the draft of the regulation, see Coleman, Secretary of State to N.A. Robertson, 4 July 1940. NAC DEA, Gl, 1964. These regulations also spoke confusingly of “persons of German or Italian racial origin.”

35 D. Toews to W.A. Tucker, M.P., 16 July 1940. N. A. Robertson to Coleman, Department of Secretary of State, 15 Aug. 1940. P. C. 2653 (14 Sept. 1939) quoted in Skelton to F.C. Blair, Director of Immigration. Ibid.

36 Defence of Canada Regulations (1941), Regulation 26B, 35–36.

37 Skelton to Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Commissioner S.T. Wood, 1 Nov. 1939. Skelton to the Czech Consul General, Montreal, 3 Nov. 1939. NAC DEA, Gl, 1964.

38 RCMP Commissioner S.T. Wood, in N.A. Robertson to D.C. Saul (RCMP), 14 Sept. 1939. Ibid.

39 N.A. Robertson memorandum, 27 Oct. 1939. Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid. “Appeal Court,” Hamilton Spectator, 15 Sept. 1939. “Protect Rights of Loyal Aliens,” Toronto Globe and Mail, 28 Oct. 1939.

42 1940 and 1941 statistics in NAC DEA, Gl, 1964. See also Kelly, J.J., “The Prisoner-of-War Camps in Canada 1939–1947,” (M.A. thesis, University of Windsor, 1976),Google Scholar chs. 1–4.

43 RCMP Commissioner to SSEA, 20 Aug. 1947. SSEA to British High Commissioner, Ottawa, 24 Oct. 1947. DEA, 8008–A.

44 N.A. Robertson to prime minister, 6 June 1940. King Papers, J4,324. Draper, Paula, “The Accidental Refugees: Canada and the Interned Refugees,” pt. 1, Canadian Jewish History, V (1978), 1–37.Google Scholar

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46 S.F.Rae to D.C. Saul, RCMP, 20 Mar. 1942: NAC DEA Gl, 1964. Registration figures for 1940–1941 were: Germans, 30,000, Italians, 31,000, Czechs and Austrians, 21,500. 21,175 of these were granted Certificates of Exemption for unquestioned loyalty to Canada. Hamilton Spectator, 14Feb. 1942, “List of Aliens Reaches 82,500.” SSEA to Canadian High Commissioner, London, 30 Mar. 1942: DEA, 773–F–40.

47 S.F. Rae memorandum to N.A. Robertson, 15 Apr. 1942. DEA, 773–F–40.

48 S.F. Rae memorandum, 15 Jan. 1942. DEA 3241–40c. Foreign Office Print 18 June 1941. King Papers, J4, 358. United States Justice Department Press Release, 23 Feb. 1942. DEA 2915–40C.

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53 N.A. Robertson to prime minister, 24 Dec. 1942. King Papers, J4, 310.

54 Elmer Davis, Director of the United States Office of War Information, to L.B. Pearson, Washington, 24 Dec. 1942. Ibid., Gl, 1965.

55 Stafford, D., Britain and the European Resistance, 1940–1945 (London: Macmillan, 1980),CrossRefGoogle Scholar p. 2 ff. Also, Keyserlingk, Robert H., “Austrian Restoration and Nationalism: A British Dilemma During World War II,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, IX (1982), 289– 290.Google Scholar

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60 N.A. Robertson to prime minister, 11 May 1942. King Papers, 14, 235.

61 N. A. Robertson to H. H. Wrong (London), 13 Dec. 1943. DEA, 7-P(s).

62 Belgian Ambassador de Silvercruys to A.D.P. Heeney, 28 Mar. 1940. King Papers, J4, 310. N. A. Robertson memorandum to prime minister on the Canadian view of this failed move, 24 Dec. 1942. DEA, D-120-J.

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64 Postwar report “Psychological Warfare” (in Canada), 3 July 1946 (part 2). DEA 5353-S-40C.

65 Keyserlingk, Robert H., Austria in World War II: An Anglo-American Dilemma (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988),Google Scholar pp. 123ff.

66 Most secret memorandum N. S. Robertson to prime minister, 27 Oct. 1943 on the Moscow conference. King Papers, J4, 362. MG memorandum, 25 Aug. 1943; T. A. Stone memorandum 11 Sept. 1943; “Psychological Warfare Directed at Austria,” 18 Dec. 1943. DEA 5353-S-40C.

67 Ibid.,

68 Scripts are in the files entitled “Canadian Political Intelligence against Germany [this author's italics].” DEA, 5353-E-40C.

69 Psychological Warfare Committee minutes, 14 Apr. 1944 and 16 Mar. 1945. Pressure for more activity was received from several exile Austrian organizations. Ibid.,

70 Psychological Warfare Committee minutes, 29 Nov. 1945. Ibid.,

71 Memorandum to the Cabinet War Committee, 24 Nov. 1945. NAC DEA, Dl, 823. HW memorandum, 23 Feb. 1944. King Papers, J4,370. For collections of British information, see DEA 7-CA(s), 5404–40C, 7-E-l(s).

72 SSEA to SSDA (London), 16 Nov. 1939. NAC DEA, Gl, 1876. D. Sim memorandum, 14 Dec. 1943. DEA, 10934-C-2-40. J. E. Ried of External Affairs' legal division, still held this view in 1953. J. O. Perry, Legal Division, External Affairs, 21 Dec. 1953. DEA, 4697-S-40.

73 Minutes of Cabinet War Committee, report to privy minister, 3 Nov. 1943. Privy Council Office, NAC, KG. 2. 7c, 14.

74 HW memorandum to Under-SSEA, 7 Nov. 1944. DEA, 22-S(s).

75 G. de Glazebrook to N. A. Robertson, 14 Nov. 1943. DEA, 7-CA-3(s).

76 Mutton, D. and Page, D., “Planning in the East Block. The Post-Hostilities Problems Committee in Canada 1943–1945,” International Journal, XXXII, 4 (Fall 1977), 725.Google Scholar

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78 Ibid., 13 Sept. and 14 Oct. 1944.

79 Ibid., 6 Nov. 1944.

80 Ibid., 6 Mar. 1945.

81 D. M. L. Farr, “The View of History,” p. 9.

82 B. K. Sandwell to prime minister, 4 Dec. 1945. DEA, 8447–40.

83 Prime minister to B. K. Sandwell, 12 Dec. 1945. Ibid.,

84 “Ottawa Asked to Re-classify Enemy Aliens,” Toronto Globe and Mail, 1 Apr. 1946.

85 “Disposal of Enemy Aliens in Overseas Territory under UK Jurisdiction,” 3 Dec. 1945. MAC DEA, A12,2087.

86 Memorandum to Ignatieff, 26 Apr. 1945. DEA, 855-E-39.

87 H. H. Wrong to the Director of Immigration, 13 Mar. 1946. DEA 8447–40. These last Orders-in-Council were PC 2908 (31 July 1947) and PC 4850 (26 Nov. 1947). Immigration Branch, 446, 675985(s).

88 A.D.P. Heeney to C.D. Howe, 2 Aug. 1945. Ibid., 675985(s).

89 N. A. Robertson to prime minister, 18 Jan. 1946. King Papers, J4, 235.

90 Ibid.,

91 Ibid.,

92 Ibid.,

93 Memo to SSEA, 21 Jan. 1948. DEA, 8447–40. L. B. Pearson to N. A. Robertson, 29 July 1948.NAC DEA, A 12, 2094.

94 European Division memorandum “Austrian Treaty” for U/SSEA, 28 Nov. 1949. DEA, 4697-S-40.

95 J. Eayeres, In Defence of Canada. Peacemaking and Deterrence, pp. 13, 35–36.

96 Director of Immigration to the Deputy Minister, Department of Mines and Resources, 25 Feb. 1948. Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration, NAC, RG.26.446, 675985.

97 The First Austrian request found on file is from Dr. Ludwig Kleinwächter, once consul general in 1930–1931 in Ottawa and now Austrian representative in Washington, to the Canadian ambassador, Washington, 21 June 1946. King Papers, J4, 235.

98 H. H. Wrong to SSEA, Washington, 5 Mar. 1948. J.E. Ried to SSEA, 19 Apr. 1948. NAC DEA, A12, 2094.

99 L. L. St. Laurent written remarks, 14 Feb. 1948; memorandum for SSEA, 17 Apr. 1948; memorandum for SSEA and handwritten remarks, 14 May 1948; H. H. Wrong to J. E. Ried, 28 May 1948. DEA, 8447–40.

100 L. B. Pearson memorandum for minister of external affairs, 17 Apr. 1948. Ibid., L. B. Pearson memorandum to SSEA, 14 May 1948. NAC DEA, A12, 2094.

101 L. B. Pearson to N. A. Robertson, 29 July 1948. DEA, 8447–40.

102 European division to Mr. Maynard, 23 Aug. 1948; memorandum for SSEA, 25 Aug. 1948. Ibid.,

103 Ministry of External Affairs, New Zealand to SSEA, 12 June 1946. DEA, 7-DG (s).

104 SSEA to the Canadian high commissioner, London, 10 Jan. 1947; NAC DEA, A12,2087. Press release, Department of External Affairs, 16 Jan. 1947; L. St. Laurent draft statement, 6 Feb. 1947; text of cabinet recommendation, SSEA to Canadian ambassador, Washington, 10 Mar. 1947. DEA, 7-DG(s).

105 Memorandum forU/SSEA “Austrian Treaty,” 28 Nov. 1949. DEA, 4697-S-40. SSEA to Canadian high commissioner, London, 25 Feb. 1947:NAC DEA , A12,2087. Secretary of State Commonwealth Relations (ex-SS Dominion Affairs) to SSEA, 26 Aug. 1947. DEA, 7-DG (s). Carlyle, Margaret, ed., Documents on International Affairs 1949–1950 (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), pp. 507–508.Google Scholar E. C. Harrison, Canada in World Affairs 1949–50, p. 82.

106 Canada. Department of External Relations. Annual Report 1949, p. 23.

107 J. W. Holmes to SSEA, London, 15 Oct. 1947. NAC DEA, A12, 2094.

108 L. St. Laurent to prime minister, 14 Feb. 1948. DEA, 8447–40.

109 For opposed international jurists' views, see Whitman, Marjorie, ed., Digest of International Law (Washington, D. C., 1961 f.), v. 3, 425–477.Google ScholarLanger, Robert, Seizure of Territory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947), pp. 163,Google Scholar 258. Clute, Robert E., The International Legal Status of Austria 1938–1945 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1962),CrossRefGoogle ScholarMarek, K., Identity and Continuity of States in Public Law (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1969).Google Scholar For a sceptical view of Austria's continuity, Fritz Fellner, “Die außenpolitische und völkerrechtliche Situation Österreichs 1938. Osterreichs Wiederherstellung als Kriegsziel der Allierten,” in Weinzierl, Erika and Skalnick, Kurt, eds., Österreich. Die zweite Republik (Graz: Verlag Styria, 1973), 1,Google Scholar 60 and 73.

110 This anomaly was based on the reasoning that “On March 13, 1938, Austria was forcibly incorporated into the German Reich and on September 3, the following year, a state of war was notified with the whole of the German Reich.” Canadian High Commissioner, New Delhi—SSEA, 19 Feb. 1949. DEA, 7. D.G.(s). See also SSDA (London) to SSEA, 16 Mar. and 25 Mar. 1938: NAC DEA, Gl, 1781. Also SSDA to SSEA, 9 Nov. 1946: DEA 7-Ps. Stanley, Guy D., British Policy and the Austrian Question (doctoral dissertation, University of London, 1973), p. 25.Google ScholarWagnleitner, Reinhold, Groβbritannien und die Wiedererrichtung der Republik Österreich (doctoral dissertation, University of Salzburg, 1975), pp. 3, 8–9.Google Scholar

111 Dates of termination of state of war: United Kingdom, 16Sept. 1947; South Africa, 18 Feb. 1948; Australia, October 1948; India, February 1949.

112 Stourzh, Gerald, Geschichte des Staatsvertrages 1945–1955 (Graz: Verlag Styria, 1980), p.28Google Scholar and p. 179, footnote 24; 243, 244.

113 R. W. Flournoy to Green H. Hackworth, Legal Advisor, United States Secretary of State, Washington, 17 Apr. 1945: RG59 (Secretary of State), National Archives, Washington, D. C : 711 63/4–1745. Langer, R., Seizure of Territory. The Stimson Doctrine and Related Principles in Legal Theory and Practice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947), pp. 163Google Scholar and 285.

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115 SSEA to J. A. Glen, Minister of Mines and Resources, Ottawa, 22 Jan. 1948. DEA, 8447–40.

116 L. St.Laurent to prime minister, 14 Feb. 1948. Ibid.,

117 H. H. Wrong to Austrian Ambassador Ludwig Kleinwaechter, Washington, 12 Apr. 1948 and reply, 13 Apr. 1948. Ibid., Fr. Hudd to Austrian Minister to London, Heinrich Schmid, 27 Apr. 1948 and reply, 10 May 1948. NAC DEA, A12, 2094.

118 Ibid.,

119 Reid, Escott, Time of Fear and Hope. Making of the North Atlantic Treaty 1947–49 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1977),Google Scholar p. 25 f., 139. Also R. Spencer, Canada in World Affairs, p. 246 ff.

120 Memorandum to SSEA, 20 Dec. 1949. DEA, 8447–40.

121 Canada. Department of External Affairs. 1949. 1949 Annual Report, p. 23.

122 F. O. Riedl, Austrian Consul General, to A. D. H. Heeney. DEA, 8447–40. Department of External Affairs Press release No. 34, 10 July 1951. DEA, 10194-L-40.

123 J. B. C. Watkins to U/SSEA, 23 July 1951. DEA, 8447–40.

124 From the Austrian post summary, External Affairs. Thanks are expressed to Mr. D. Cole for bringing this to the author's attention.

125 Watkins to U/SSEA, 28 Dec. 1952. DEA, 26-CDC-40.

126 Victor Doré was Canadian minister to Switzerland, Dr. Max Loewenthal-Chlumecky was Austrian ambassador to the United States.

127 Numerous Austrian initiatives were taken to push the Canadians to open a separate mission in Austria, including one during a state visit by Chancellor Raab to Canada. J. E. Blais to R. Ford, 13 Dec. 1954. DEA, 8447–40.

128 R. Ford to U/SSEA, 28 June 1955. U/SSEA to prime minister, 18 Jan. 1956. Ibid., SSEA to Canadian ambassador, Switzerland, 3 Aug. 1956. DEA, 11262-R-40.

129 J. Leger to minister, 15 Sept. 1958. DEA, 8447–40.

130 Ibid.,

131 J. Macdonald, Canada's first ambassador to Austria, to SSEA, 12 Jan. 1959. Ibid., Also DEA, 50129,–40.

132 A term much in favor in the late fifties and sixties. SeeKeyserlingk, Robert H., “Canada,” in Mittlere Mächte in der Weltpolitik (Opladen: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Auswärtige Politik, 1969), pp. 113–124,Google Scholar also p. 7 f.