Looking backwards should always be instructive. The lessons that history can teach us are, of course, fundamental to progress in science but what about its management?

When an Englishman, George Leigh Mallory, was repeatedly asked in 1923, during a lecture tour in America, why he wanted to climb Mount Everest, he replied, simply “Because it is there”. In the course of a recent workshop on the phenomenon of Antarctic sub-glacial lakes, best exemplified by the largest known lake which lies under the Russian Vostok station, a similar question was hovering in the air. “Why drill through to the lake?”; one could sense the wish that it would be sufficient, simply to give the “Mallory” answer. Mallory's reply carries with it the feeling of a “put down,” as if he were saying that he wanted no more questions about his motives for engaging in a venture which needed no further justification. Similarly, many scientists would be tempted to answer with the same asperity. “Don't question our motives- this is an experiment. We will build hypotheses about what we are likely to find, and then test them by drilling through; but the ultimate justification lies in the fact that Lake Vostok, is there, and is a proper object of human enquiry”.

In Antarctica polar conditions of real cold, desiccation and salinity extremes lie away from the sea edge. Here, where there is sufficient moisture for life to be found at all it is invariably dominated by cyanobacteria, sometimes in a profusion unmatched elsewhere in the world. Now that much of the descriptive ecology and physiology is completed where should ecology be going? There are two possibilities: 1) an ecosystem approach to the functioning of Antarctic inland areas; 2) a molecular approach to the genetic controls on survival in cold, saline and desiccated conditions.

The high degree of isolation of Antarctica may well have protected its seals and birds from many of the diseases found in related species outside the continent. Our recent review of diseases in penguins has shown that birds taken into captivity are susceptible to a wide range of diseases, many of which have not been recorded in the wild. The same situation presumably applies to Antarctic seals. Adélie penguins in Antarctica have been shown to have antibodies to Newcastle disease virus, avian influenza virus and the Chlamydia group of bacteria. From this we could infer that wild birds have had contact with these diseases but, in the cases of viral diseases at least, a more likely explanation could be that the antibodies are the result of cross-infection with related but benign viral strains. There is no evidence to date that any major exotic diseases have been introduced into the Antarctic ecosystem. However, unless non-pathogenic strains are present to provide cross-immunity, all birds and seals are likely to be highly susceptible to such introductions.

Scanning electron microscope and image analysis techniques were used to construct a profile of otolith growth from June 1987–June 1988 in immature Notothenia coriiceps. Growth was found to fluctuate seasonally with a large decrease between August and late November 1987. Examination of stomach fullness showed that fish continued to feed during winter. Increases in absolute light levels and sea temperature during spring were found to coincide approximately with increasing growth. Conclusive evidence distinguishing between hypotheses for limitation of growth either by seawater temperature or by resource availability was not found.

Forty six taxa of testate amoebae were found in 45 samples of aquatic environments ranging from small pools to lakes. Four assemblages were distinguished which, to some degree, can be related ecologically to different pH ranges, and to differences in the habitat structure. The Nebela collaris assemblage occurs in acid pools mostly vegetated with mosses. The Centropyxis gibba gibbosa–Euglypha tuberculata–Difflugia globularis/globulus assemblage is found in the sediments of circumneutral to slightly alkaline lakes. Both of the other assemblages are mainly found in pools, which are more (for the Trinema assemblage) or less vegetated with mosses, in slightly acid (the Difflugia penardi–Centropyxis aerophila assemblage) or circumneutral to slightly alkaline (the Trinema lineare assemblage) conditions. A generic comparison with the Arctic fauna indicates differences, especially in the role of Difflugia as a dominant genus in aquatic habitats.

The Antarctic bivalve Yoldia eightsi (Couthouy) has been assessed as a monitor species in the vicinity of a research station at Signy Island. For animals of comparable age n-alkane loading was highest at the site closest to the station. The character of the n-alkane pool of Yoldia varied with distance from the station and also differed from that of the sediment. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) loading was highest 250 m from the station. Loading of n-alkanes and PAH varied through the year; the lowest levels of n-alkanes were in October and the highest in April. The maximum for PAH was in October. Hydrocarbons increased with age for animals from five to 50 years old; 100–2000 ng animal−1 for n-alkanes and 1–21 ng animal−1 for PAH. Tissue concentrations decreased with age; 6000–500 μg kg1 for n-alkanes and 25–5 μg kg−1 for PAH. Several biogenic branched chain alkenes were also present; one C25.3 isomer was predominant at concentrations up to 290 μg kg−1 in mature animals (40% of the aliphatic fraction). Accumulation was not constant with age and concentrations reflected both anthropogenic and biogenic hydrocarbons in the marine environment. Seasonal variation in PAH load suggested the major proportion of accumulation over the year was only temporary. Yoldia eightsi were not suitable to monitor low level contamination such as that at Signy Island and past incidents were not resolved from the background input.

Dissostichus eleginoides spawn over the continental slope from June to September. The eggs, 4.3–4.7 mm diameter, were found in the upper 500 m of the water column over waters 2200–4400 m deep. Incubation of eggs is likely to take about three months. Hatching is probably in October/November. Embryos in egg development stages III and IV are described. Scales are not present until the fish are about 64–74 mm long.

Soil samples from eight sites at Marble Point and Pram Point, McMurdo Sound region, contaminated by human activities were examined for heavy metal content, using sequential extraction methods. The redistribution of lead, zinc and copper arising from point sources of these metals was demonstrated. The levels found are not considered to represent serious pollution but do indicate that human activities can change the chemistry of the Antarctic environment in localized areas.

Seventy-three sponge species were caught at 23 stations on the continental shelf of the Lazarev and Weddell Sea (Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean). Tedania tantula was the most often found species amongst the 63 demosponge species caught and among the five hexactinellid species Rossella racovitzae was most common. The stations were classified according to their species inventory, and so the individual stations of the resulting four groups were rather uniformly dispersed over the entire investigation area. The species composition of adjacent stations varied considerably. There was no discernible relationship between the biological set of data and any combination of the available environmental characteristics of the stations. The sponge fauna of the, so far very poorly investigated, Lazarev Sea did not differ considerably from that of the adjacent Weddell Sea. The only species to be recorded for the first time on the Antarctic continental shelf were Homaxinella flagelliformis and Hyrtios arenosa. Small scale environmental events such as iceberg scouring, or biological characteristics such as extremely slow growth and budding reproduction are thought to generate the patchy distribution pattern.

Enzymatic polymorphism was used to detect variability within Notothenia rossii from two sites on the Kerguelen Plateau and Champsocephalus gunnari from the same sites and the South Orkney Islands. No polymorphism was found in the second species and it was low but not statistically significant in the first. This apparent homogeneity does not substantiate suggestions from other results that the populations can be separated, especially in the case of C. gunnari. Other approaches will be necessary to solve definitively the question of population separation.

A survey of hydrocarbons and sterols in marine and shoreline sediments was undertaken adjacent to Davis Station in Princess Elizabeth Land, Prydz Bay, Eastern Antarctica to determine the impact of a human settlement, including a sewage outfall on the local marine environment. Soil samples from selected locations onshore were also analysed to ascertain the extent of hydrocarbon contamination emanating from fuel storage facilities and other potential sources. The faecal sterol coprostanol was detected at 13.2 μg g−1 (60% of total sterols) in sediment adjacent to the Davis sewage outfall and up to 5.0 μg g−1 on the shoreline at Davis Beach. These concentrations indicate significant faecal contamination. The absence of coprostanol in faeces from the local wildlife confirms a human origin for this sewage biomarker. Hydrocarbons on the shoreline near Davis were present at up to 5.5 μg g−1 (dry weight of sediment). Biomarker profiles indicate an anthropogenic origin for these hydrocarbons. Onshore, degraded hydrocarbons derived from Special Antarctic Blend distillate were found at relatively high levels in soils at the fuel storage depot (up to 220 μg g−1). The source of these hydrocarbons appeared to be spillage from fuel storage tanks with possible contributions from fuel pipeline leakage and vehicle useage. Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the soils were very low, generally below 1 ng g−1 (dry weight of sediment) for individual compounds.

Population fecundity and reproductive habits in Patagonotothen tessellata were established for each reproductive period during 1988 and 1989. Fecundity/total length and fecundity/total weight relationships were analysed through regression models. Fecundity was positively correlated with fish length and weight. Mean fecundity was 25932 eggs (range 7634–62033). The regressions for each reproductive period are similar, suggesting that the amount of energy allocated to reproduction does not vary between spawning periods. Parental behaviour is described from both field and laboratory observations. Nesting and parental care were carried out by P. tessellata males. The life history strategy of this species is discussed in relation to that of other nototheniid species.

The clarity of 39 meltwater ponds on the McMurdo Ice Shelf was determined as the horizontal viewing range of a black disc. Visual ranges varied widely from pond to pond from 0.14–5 m; so did the concentrations of optically-active constituents, including the suspended particulates, phytoplankton (10-fold variation) and inorganic suspensoids (> 100-fold), and dissolved yellow substance (10-fold). In six of the ponds the ratio of beam attenuation coefficient to total suspended solids concentration was low (< 0.6 m2 g−1) compared to that in the others (0.7–2.0 m2 g−1, suggesting that generally larger particles were present suspended in the water in these ponds. In both groups, relationships between beam attenuation and constituent concentrations indicated that much of the attenuation was due to inorganic suspensoids. Organic detritus also appeared to be important in many ponds, while phytoplankton and dissolved yellow substance were generally less important. Even though the clarity of many of the ponds was poor, their relative shallowness meant levels of underwater light were probably generally adequate for benthic plant growth.

During the period 9 December 1991–4 February 1992 shipboard and aerial surveys of seals in the pack ice off the Princess Martha Coast were made. All aerial surveys were flown from the MV SA Agulhas at the edge of the fast ice opposite SANAE at 70°19′S, 02°26′W. A total of 18 1/2-nm-wide transects were flown censusing 481.3 nm2 of pack ice within which 1437 seals were counted. The species composition of the seals was 94.4% crabeater, 3.4% Ross, 1.4% leopard and 0.8% Weddell seals. The density of seals nm−2 for the early season surveys (December) in the inner pack was 1.92 for crabeater, 0.0 for leopard; 0.026 for Weddell and 0.057 for Ross seals. The density for the late season surveys throughout the pack was 4.02 for crabeater, 0.10 for leopard, 0.029 for Weddell and 0.122 for Ross seals. These data support the thesis that seal densities increase as the amount of pack ice diminishes with the advance of summer. Leopard seals were largely found near the retreating outer edge of the pack, and Weddell seals associated closely with the inshore fast ice, whilst both crabeater and Ross seals showed no statistically significant preference either for any part of the pack ice or for any particular geographical area covered during the surveys in the present study. The high densities (0.45−2.91 seals nm−2) and percentage species contribution (9.7−32.4%) of Ross seals determined by shipboard censuses in the same area during the early 1970s could not be confirmed in the present study, and it is likely that a real decrease in Ross seal numbers has taken place.

Subantarctic Marion Island is one of the few localities where the congeneric albatrosses Phoebetria fusca and P. palpebrata breed sympatrically. Chicks of both species at Marion Island were induced to regurgitate their stomach contents after being fed. Liquid formed over half the diet by mass. Cephalopods occurred most frequently in both species' diets. In terms of mass, cephalopods formed the larger part of the diet of sooty albatrosses, whereas fish was more important to light-mantled sooty albatrosses. Crustaceans and birds were also recorded for both species. Squid of the families Onychoteuthidae, Histioteuthidae, Chiroteuthidae and Cranchiidae occurred most abundantly in both species. Most squid taken by both albatrosses were of species known to float after death, suggesting that scavenging plays an important role in the species' foraging behaviour. Light-mantled sooty albatrosses consumed more squid restricted to the south of the Antarctic Polar Front than did sooty albatrosses, supporting a trend to latitudinal segregation of the two species while foraging.

The current status of Antarctic Odontocetes – sperm whales Physeter catodon, killer whales Orcinus orca, long-finned pilot whales Globicephala melaena, hourglass dolphins Lagenorhynchus cruciger and poorly known species of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae)–were studied in Anatarctic waters using data gathered in sighting surveys conducted from 1976/77 to 1987/88. Temporal variation in density demonstrated the different migration patterns by species, especially between sperm whale and killer whale. Spatial distributions during mid-summer demonstrated different peaks of occurrence for each species by latitude that suggest possible segregation between the species. Killer whales occur mainly in the very southernmost areas, sperm whales in the southern half of the study area, beaked whales (mostly southern bottlenose whales Hyperoodon planifrons) ranged over a wide area, and long-finned pilot whales and hourglass dolphins were mainly in the northern regions of Antarctic waters. Several longitudinal peaks of occurrence and apparent distribution gaps were identified for sperm, beaked and killer whales. Abundance estimates for south of the Antarctic Convergence in January are based on line transect theory and were 28 100 animals (coefficient of variation CV 0.18) sperm whales, 599 300 (0.15) beaked whales (mostly southern bottlenose whales), 80 400 (0.15) killer whales, 200 000 (0.35) long-finned pilot whales, and 144 300 (0.17) hourglass dolphins. Based on this, biomass of these species were estimated as 0.77 (sperm whales), 2.70 (beaked whales), 0.32 (killer whales), 0.16 (long-finned pilot whales) and 0.01 (hourglass dolphins) million tonnes. Consumption of food (mostly squid) by the Odontocetes is estimated as 14.4 million tonnes with 67% of the total consumed by beaked whales. Indirect consumption of Antarctic krill through the predation of squid by beaked whales is estimated to be c. 24 million tonnes. This value is similar to the estimate of krill consumption by penguins in the Antarctic (33 million tonnes). Odontocetes, especially southern bottlenose whales, are suggested to have a much greater role in the Antarctic ecosystem than has previously been considered.

A magnetic survey was carried out in the area between Lady Newnes Bay and Evans Névé (northern Victoria Land), to ascertain whether the contact between the Wilson and the Bowers terranes could be identified remotely. The survey consisted of three ground and 12 helicopter-borne profiles. The method was calibrated on the southernmost profiles, which cover a well-exposed section of the contact between the Wilson and Bowers terranes. The northern profiles were located in an area where the contact is poorly constrained by outcrops, so that it could be tested whether the junction displays a magnetic signature. The magnetic data and the 2.5-D modeling of three selected profiles indicate that no easily recognizable magnetic signature defines this contact. The main features of the area are magnetic anomalies probably controlled by the “Meander Intrusives” and the McMurdo volcanic rocks, both characterized by high susceptibility values. If an anomaly related to the contact exists, then it is probably masked by these stronger anomalies.

A female Antarctic krill loses 34% of its body mass when it lays a batch of eggs. This represents a considerable input of energy which was estimated using a combination of measured mass and energy differences in female krill and from the measured energetic content of ovarian tissue. Large (c. 50 mm) female krill lose 2.9–3.8 kJ each time a batch of eggs is laid. Calculations using this figure indicate that multiple spawning by Antarctic krill in a season would require above average phytoplankton concentrations (> 0.5 μg chl a 1−1) and filtration rates which are close to the maximum reported (> 10 l h−1).

The diet of mainly adult and sub-adult male Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) was investigated during the austral winters of 1992 and 1993 using faecal (scat) analysis. Of samples containing identifiable prey remains (n = 376), c. 28% contained krill alone, c. 37% contained fish alone and c. 35% contained both krill and fish. The mean size of krill taken was smaller than in summer due to the absence of large adult krill of 55–60 mm total length. Of the 25 fish taxa taken, krill-feeding species predominated, especially in scats that also contained krill. Non-krill feeding species were more abundant in scats containing fish alone. The mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari Lönnberg 1905), which feeds mainly on krill, was the most important fish species in terms of absolute frequency (53%), frequency of occurrence (69%) and estimated biomass (47%); fur seals may have a significant impact on local stocks of this species. Cephalopods and pelagic fish (myctophids) were of minor importance in the diet (<2%). The importance of krill and krill-feeding fish species suggests that the male fur seals, which are present around South Georgia in winter, are targeting their foraging on a krill and fish community, probably associated with krill aggregations.