Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T15:06:41.913Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Multilingualism in the Successor States of the Soviet Union

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 October 2009

Isabelle Kreindler
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The Soviet Union was a country with one of the most complex language situations in the world. Over one hundred nationalities were listed in its last 1989 census, ranging in size from 145 million Russians (50.8 percent of the population) to the ‘26 Peoples of the North’ who together numbered only 184,448. For most of these nationalities, the majority claimed that their national language was their mother tongue. However, knowledge of Russian as first or second language was claimed by about 62 percent of the non-Russians. Only 4.2 percent of the Russians reported fluency in one of the national languages, though among the Russians living outside the Russian Federation, bilingualism was about 19 percent (Anderson and Silver 1990, Arutiunian, et al. 1992, Goskomstat 1991, Haarmann 1992).

Type
Country and Regional Surveys
Information
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , Volume 17 , March 1997 , pp. 91 - 112
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

UNANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akaev, A. V. 1992. Iazykovoe zakonodatel'stvo soiuznykh respublik i natsional'noe samoznanie. [Linguistic legislation in the union republics and national self-consciousness.] Moscow: INION.Google Scholar
Akhundova, E. 1992. Tak nachinaetsia kul'turnaia avariia. [Thus begins cultural disaster.] Literaturnaia gazeta, [Literary Gazette,] August 5,2.Google Scholar
Akiner, S. 1989. Uzbekistan: Republic of many tongues. In Kirkwood, M. (ed.) Language planning in the Soviet Union. London: Macmillan. 100–122.Google Scholar
Alimov, K. Z. 1994. The rediscovery of Uzbek history and its foreign policy implications. In Starr, S. F. (ed.) The legacy of history in Russian and the new states of Eurasia. Armonk, NY: M. E., Sharpe. 217–236.Google Scholar
Anderson, B. A. and Silver, B. D.. 1990. Some factors in the linguistic and ethnic Russification of Soviet nationalities: Is everyone becoming Russian? In Hajda, L. and Beissinger, M. (ed.) The nationalities factor in Soviet politics and society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 95–130.Google Scholar
Arel, D. 1995. Language politics in independent Ukraine: Towards one or two state languages? Nationalities Papers. 23.497–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arel, D. 1996. A lurking cascade of assimilation in Kiev? Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.1.73–90.Google Scholar
Aronson, H. I. (ed.) 1994. Studies in the non-Slavic languages of the CIS and the Baltic states. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.Google Scholar
Arutiunian, lu. V., et al. 1992. Russkie; etnosotsiologicheskie ocherki. [The Russians: Ethnosociological papers.] Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
Balzer, M. M. and Vinokurova, U. A.. 1996. Nationalism, interethnic relations and federalism: The case of the Sakha (Yakutiia) Republic. Europe-Asia Studies. 48.1.101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskakov, A. N. 1994. Gosudarstvennye tiurkskie iazyki v Rossiiskoi Federatstii. [Turkic state languages in the Russian Federation.] In Solntsev, V., Mikhal'chenko, V. and Bahnyan, K. (eds.) Language problems of the Russian Federation and foreign states. Moscow: RAN. 36–40.Google Scholar
Bilinsky, Y. 1962. The Soviet education laws of 1958–1959 and Soviet national policy. Soviet Studies. 14.2.138–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaney, J. W. (ed.) 1995. The successor states to the USSR. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc.Google Scholar
Bohr, A. 1996. Turkmenistan and the Turkmen. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 348–366.Google Scholar
Bohr, A. and Crisp, S.. 1996. Kyrgyzstan and the Kyrgyz. In Smith, G. (ed). The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 385–409.Google Scholar
Bremmer, I. and Taras, R. (eds.) 1993. Nations and politics in the Soviet successor states. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brubaker, R. 1994. Nationhood and the nationality question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia. Theory and Soviety. 23.1.47–78.Google Scholar
Brubaker, R. 1995. Aftermath of empire and the unmixing of peoples. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 18.189–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruchis, M. 1982. One step back, two steps forward: On the language policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the national republics: Moldavia. Boulder, CO: EE Monographs.Google Scholar
Brubaker, R. 1984. Nations, nationalities, people: A study of the nationalities policy of the Communist Party in Soviet Moldavia. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chinn, J. and Roper, S. D.. 1995. Ethnic mobilization and reactive nationalism: The case of Moldova. Nationalities Papers. 23.291–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clem, R. 1996. Belarus and the Belarusians. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 210–222.Google Scholar
Coulmas, F. 1994. Language policy and planning: Political perspectives. In Grabe, W., et al. (eds.) Annual Review of ‘Applied Linguistics, 14. Language policy and planning. New York: Cambridge University Press. 34–52.Google Scholar
Crisp, S. 1989. Soviet language planning since 1917–53. In Kirkwood, M. (ed.) Language planning in the Soviet Union. London: Macmillan. 23–45.Google Scholar
Dave, B. 1996. National revival in Kazakhstan: Language shift and identity change. Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.1.51–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deletant, D. 1989. Language policy and linguistic trends in Soviet Moldavia. In Kirkwood, M. (ed.) Language planning in the Soviet Union. London: Macmillan. 189–216.Google Scholar
Desheriev, Iu. D. 1979. Natsiona’nye otnosheniia v zrelom sotsialisticheskom obshchestve i razvitie dvuiazychiia. [National relations in a mature socialist society and the development of bilingualism.] In Baskakov, N. A., et al. (eds.) Puti razvitiia natsional‘no-russkogo dvuiazychiia v nerusskikh shkolakh. [Ways of developing national-Russian bilingualism in non-Russian schools.] Moscow: Nauka. 7–20.Google Scholar
Desheriev, lu. D. 1987. Vzaimovliianie i vzaimoobogoshchenie iazykov narodov SSSR. [Mutual influence and enrichment of languages of peoples of the USSR.] Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
D'iachkov, M. V. 1993. Iazykovaia politika v sovremennoi Rossii. [Language politics in contemporary Russia.] Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia. [Sociological Research.] 9.99–102.Google Scholar
Dingley, J. 1989. Ukrainian and Belorussian—A testing ground. In Kirkwood, M. (ed). Language planning in the Soviet Union. London: Macmillan. 174–188.Google Scholar
Dixon, S. 1996. The Russians and the Russian question. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 47–74.Google Scholar
Dragadze, T. 1996a. Self-determination and the politics of exclusion. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 19.341–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dragadze, T. 1996b. Azerbaijan and the Azerbaijanis. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 269–288.Google Scholar
Dreifelds, J. 1996. Latvia in transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drobizheva, L. 1994. The process of disintegration in the Russian Federation and the problem of Russians. In Shlapentokh, V., Sendich, M. and Payin, E. (eds.) The new Russian diaspora: Russian minorities in the former Soviet republics. Armonk, NY: M. E., Sharpe. 45–55.Google Scholar
Duncan, P. and Rady, M. (eds.) 1993. Towards a new community. London: University of London Press.Google Scholar
Duncan, R. and Holman, G. P. Jr (eds.) 1994. Ethnic nationalism and regional conflict: The former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Dyer, D. L. 1994. Moldavian linguistic realities. In Aronson, H. I. (ed.) Non-Slavic languages of the USSR. Columbus, OH: Slavica. 234–244.Google Scholar
Dzhafarov, I. B. 1982. Russkii iazyk - iazyk druzhby i bratstva. [Russian—the language offriendship and brotherhood.] Baku: Azerbaijanskoe gosizdatel'stvo.Google Scholar
Eyal, J. and Smith, G.. 1996. Moldova and the Moldovans. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 223–244.Google Scholar
Fierman, W. 1985. Language development in Soviet Uzbekistan. In Kreindler, I. (ed.) Sociolinguistic perspectives on Soviet national languages: Tlxeir past, present and future. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 205–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fierman, W. 1995b. Problems of language law implementation in Uzbekistan. Nationalities Papers. 23.573–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fierman, W. 1995c. Independence and the declining priority of language law implementation in Uzbekistan. In Ro'i, Y. (ed.) Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting legacies. London: Cass. 205–230.Google Scholar
Forsberg, T. (ed.) 1995. Contested territory: Border disputes at the edge of the former Soviet empire. Suffolk: E. Elgar.Google Scholar
Goble, P. A. 1995. Regions, republics and Russian reform: Center periphery relations in the Russian Federation. In Blaney, J. (ed.) The successor states to the U.S.S.R. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. 161–170.Google Scholar
Gordon, E. J. 1996. The revival of Polish national consciousness: A comparative study of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. Nationalities Papers. 24.217–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goskomstat SSSR. 1991. Vsesoiuznaiaperepis ‘ naseleniia 1989. [The All-Union Census of 1989.] Moscow: Finansy i statistika.Google Scholar
Haarmann, H. 1992. Measures to increase thejmportance of Russian within and outside the Soviet Union—A case of covert language-spread policy. International journal of the Sociology of Language. 95.102–129.Google Scholar
Hajda, L. and Beissinger, M. (eds.) The nationalities factor in Soviet politics and society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlig, J. 1994. The Mordvin Mastorava (‘Motherand’) movement in sociohistorical perspective. In Aronson, H. (ed.) Studies in the non-Slavic languages of the CIS and the Baltic states. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society. 95–111.Google Scholar
Harlig, J. 1995. Sociolinguistics (real and imagined) in Eastern Europe. In Harlig, J. and Pleh, C. (eds.) When East meets West: Sociolinguistics in the former Socialist bloc. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 1–24.Google Scholar
Harris, C. D. 1993. The new Russian minorities: A statistical overview. Post-Soviet Geography. 34.1–27.Google Scholar
Helgesen, M. M. 1994. Central Asia: Prospects for ethnic and nationalist conflict. In Duncan, R. and Holman, G. (eds.) Ethnic nationalism and regional conflict: The former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 137–153.Google Scholar
Herzig, E. M. 1996. Armenia and the Armenians. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 248–268;Google Scholar
Hewitt, G. B. 1985. Georgian: A noble past, a secure future. In Kreindler, I. (ed.) Sociolinguistic perspectives on Soviet national languages: Their past present and future. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 163–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewitt, G. B. 1993. Language and nationalism in Georgia and the West's response. In Duncan, P. and Rady, M. (eds.) Towards a new community. London: University of London Press. 161–176.Google Scholar
Hosking, G. 1993. The Russian myth: Empire and people. In Duncan, P. and Rady, M. (eds.) Towards a new community. London: University of London Press. 37–43.Google Scholar
Hough, J. F. 1996. Sociology, the state and language politics. Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.95–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huskey, E. 1995. The Politics of language in Kyrgyzstan. Nationalities Papers. 23.549–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaev, M. I. 1990. Iazyk i zakon. [Language and law.] Russkii iazyk v natsional'noi shkole. [The Russian language in the national (non-Russian) school] 7.3–6.Google Scholar
Ivanov, V. N. 1994. Mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniia v Rossii. [Inter-nationality relations in Russia.] Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia. [Sociological Research.] 6.32–40.Google Scholar
Jones, S. F. 1992. Revolutions in revolutions within revolutions: Minorities in the Georgian Republic. In Gitelman, Z. (ed.) The politics of nationality and the erosion of the USSR. London: St. Martin's Press. 77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, S. F. 1995. The Georgian language state program and its implications. Nationalities Papers. 23.537–548.Google Scholar
Karklins, R. 1994. Ethnopolitics and transition to democracy: The collapse of the USSR and Latvia. Washington DC: John Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Khanazarov, K. Kh. 1982. Reshenie natsional'no-iazykovoiproblemy v SSSR. [The solution of the national-language problem in the USSR.] Moscow: Politizdat.Google Scholar
Khazanov, A. M. 1995. After the USSR: Ethnicity, nationalism and politics in the CIS. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Kibrik, A. E. 1992. Ocherkipo obshchim Iprikladnym voprosam iazykoznaniia. [On general and applied linguistics.] Moscow: MGU.Google Scholar
Kirkwood, M. (ed.) 1989. Language planning in the Soviet Union. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kitching, P. A., et al. (eds.) 1990. Regional identity under Soviet rule: The case of the Baltic states. Hackettstown, NJ: Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies.Google Scholar
Kolstoe, P. 1995. Russians in the former Soviet Republics. London: Hurst & Co.Google Scholar
Kreindler, I. T. 1982. The changing status of Russian in the Soviet Union. International journal of the Sociology of Language. 33.7–39.Google Scholar
Kreindler, I. T. (ed.) 1985a. Sociolinguistic perspectives on Soviet national languages: Their past, present and future. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreindler, I. T. 1985b. The non-Russian languages and the challenge of Russian. In Kreindler, I. (ed.) Sociolinguistic perspectives on Soviet national languages: Their past, present and future. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 345–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreindler, I. T. 1990. Baltic area languages in the Soviet Union: A sociolinguistic perspective. In Kitching, P., et al. (eds.) Regional identity under Soviet rule: The case of the Baltic states. Hackettstown, NJ: Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies. 233–248.Google Scholar
Kreindler, I. T. 1995. Soviet muslims: Gains and losses as a result of Soviet language planning. In Ro, Y.'i (ed.) Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting legacies. London: Cass. 187–203.Google Scholar
Laitin, D. D. 1995. Identity in formation: The Russian speaking nationality in the post-Soviet diaspora. Archives Européennes de Sociologie. [European Archives of Sociology.] 36. 281–316.Google Scholar
Laitin, D. D. 1996a. Language and nationalism in the post-Soviet Republics. Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.1.4–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laitin, D. D. 1996b. National revival and competitive assimilation in Estonia. Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.1.25–39.Google Scholar
Laitin, D. D. 1996c. Language policy in the former Soviet Union: The case of Estonia. International journal of the Sociology of Language. 118.43–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lallukka, S. 1994. The status of the Volga-Finnic languages in comprehensive schools. In Aronson, H. I. (ed.) Studies in the non-Slavic languages of the CIS and the Baltic states. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society. 185–210.Google Scholar
Lapidus, G. W. and Walker, E. W.. 1995. Nationalism, regionalism and federalism: Center-periphery relations in post-Communist Russia. In Lapidus, G.W. (ed.) The new Russia: Troubled transformation. Boulder CO: Westview Press. 79–113.Google Scholar
Lewis, E. G. 1972. Multilingualism in the Soviet Union. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Limberg, W. P. 1994. World turned upside down: Ethnic conflict in the former Soviet Union. In Duncan, R. and Holman, G. (eds.) Ethnic nationalism and regional conflict: The former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 53–76.Google Scholar
Maurais, J. 1992. Redefinition du statut des languages en Union Sovietique. [Redefining the law of languages in the Soviet Union.] Language Problems and Language Planning. 16.1–20.Google Scholar
Melvin, N. 1995. Russians beyond Russia: The politics of national identity. London: Chatham House.Google Scholar
Misiunas, R. J. 1994. National identity and foreign policy in the Baltic States. In Starr, S. F. (ed.) The legacy of history in Russia and the new states of Eurasia. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. 93–122.Google Scholar
Mkrtchian, L. 1994. Ne khocu byt’ inostrantsem v Rossii. [I don't want to be a foreigner in Russia.] Literaturnaia gazeta, [Literary Gazette,] May 18th, p. 7.Google Scholar
Naby, E. 1994. The emerging Central Asian ethnic and religious factions. In Mesbahi, M. (ed.) Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. 34–55.Google Scholar
OMRI (Open Media Research Institute). 1995. Daily Digest, (May 19). Radio Liberty electronic list.Google Scholar
Orusbaev, A. 1987. Iazykovaia politika KPSS i razvitie kirgizsko-russkogo dvuiazychiia. [The linguistic policy of the CPSU and the development of Kirgiz-Russian bilingualism] Frunze: Ilim.Google Scholar
Ozolins, U. 1994. Upwardly mobile languages: The politics of language in the Baltic states. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 15. 161–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ozolins, U. 1994. 1996. Language policy and political reality. International journal of the Sociology of Language. 118. 181–200.Google Scholar
Payne, J. 1996. Tajikistan and the Tajiks. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 367–384.Google Scholar
Pettai, V. 1996. Games of ethnopolitics in Latvia. Post-Soviet Affairs. 12.1.40–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pigolkin, A. S. and Studenikina, M.. 1991. Republican language laws in the USSR: A comparative analysis. Journal of Soviet Nationalities. 2.1.38–76.Google Scholar
Pool, J. 1978. Soviet language planning: Goals, results, options. In Azrael, J. R. (ed.) Soviet nationality policies and practices. New York: Praeger. 216–226.Google Scholar
Pool, J. 1978. 1980. Whose Russian language? Problems in the definition of linguistic identity. In Allworth, E. A. (ed.) Ethnic Russia in the USSR. The dilemma of dominance. New York: Pergamon. 237–248.Google Scholar
Popova, I. M. 1993. Iazykovaia situatsiia kak faktor politicheskogo razvitia. [The linguistic situation as a factor of political development.] Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia. [Sociological Research.] 8.46–54.Google Scholar
Pugh, S. M. 1992. Literacy and biliteracy: Linguistic consequences. In Grabe, W., et al. (eds.) Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 12. Literacy. New York: Cambridge University Press. 105–116.Google Scholar
Raun, T. U. 1994. Ethnic relations and conflict in the Baltic states. In Duncan, R. and Holman, G. (eds.) Ethnic nationalism and regional conflict: The former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 155–182.Google Scholar
Raun, T. U. 1994. 1995. The Estonian language law (1989): Background and implementation. Nationalities Papers. 23.515–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ro'i, Y. (ed.) 1995. Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting legacies. London: Cass.Google Scholar
Rudensky, N. 1994. Russian minorities in the newly independent states. In Szporluk, R. (ed.) National identity and ethnicity in Russia and the new states of Eurasia. Armonk NY: M. E., Sharpe. 58–77.Google Scholar
Savoskull, S.S. 1996. Novaia russkaia diaspora u Rossiia: etnopoliticheskii aspekt etnoshenii. [The new Russian diaspora and Russia: An ethnopolitical aspect of the relations.] Etnograficheskoe Obozrenie. [Ethnographic Review.] 2.113–125.Google Scholar
Shamshur, O. and Izhevska, T. 1994. Multilingual education as a factor of interethnic relations: The case of Ukraine. Current Issues in Language and Society. 1.29–37.Google Scholar
Shlapentokh, V., Sendich, M. and Payin, E. (eds.) 1994. The new Russian diaspora: Russian minorities in the former Soviet republics. Armonk, NY: M. E., Sharpe.Google Scholar
Shuverova, V. 1995. Zakon o izykakh v Chuvashii: opyt realizatsii. [The language laws in Chuvashiia: Implementation.] Etnopoliticheskii vestnik. [Ethnopolitical Bulletin.] 3.114–121.Google Scholar
Silver, B. D. 1986. The ethnic and language dimensions in Russian and Soviet censuses. In Clem, R. S. (ed.) Research guide to the Russian and Soviet censuses. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 70–97.Google Scholar
Simon, G. 1995. Zerfall des Sowjetischen Imperiums. [The disintegration of the Soviet empire.] In Meissner, B. and Eisfeld, A. (eds.) Die Gus-Staaten in Europa und Asien. [The CIS states in Europe and Asia.] Baden-Baden: Nomos. 9–19.Google Scholar
Smith, G. 1996b. Latvia and the Latvians. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 147–169.Google Scholar
Solchanyk, R. 1990. Ukraine, Belorussia and Moldavia. In Hajda, L. and Beissinger, M. (eds.) The nationalities factor in Soviet politics and society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 175–203.Google Scholar
Starr, S. F. (ed.) 1994. The legacy of history in Russia and the new states of Eurasia. Armonk, NY: M. E., Sharpe.Google Scholar
Swietochowski, T. 1994. Azerbaijan: A borderland at the crossroads of history. In Starr, S. F. (ed.) The legacy of history in Russian and the new states of Eurasia. Armonk, NY: M. E., Sharpe. 277–299.Google Scholar
Taagepera, R. 1990. Who assimilates whom? The world and the Baltic region. In Kitching, P., et al. (eds.) Regional identity under Soviet rule: The case of the Baltic states. Hackettstown, NJ: Association for the Advancement of Baltic States. 137–150.Google Scholar
Tishkov, V. A. 1995. The Russians in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. In Ro'i, Y. (ed.) Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting legacies. London: Cass. 289–310.Google Scholar
Tsipko, A. S. 1992. Dialectics of the ascent of a new Russian statehood. In O. leda (ed.) New order in post-Communist Eurasia. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press. 187–201.Google Scholar
Wexler, P. 1985. Belorussification, Russification and Polonization: Trends in the Belorussian language 1890–1982. In Kreindler, I. (ed.) Sociolinguistic perspectives on Soviet national languages: Their past, present and future. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 37–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, A. I. 1996. The post-Soviet states and the nationalities question. In Smith, G. (ed.) The nationalities question in the Post-Soviet states. London: Longman. 23–44.Google Scholar
Woolhiser, C. 1995. The sociolinguistic study of language contact and bilingualism in the former Soviet Union: The case of Belarus. In Harlig, J. and Pleh, C. (eds.) When East meets West: Sociolinguistics in the former socialist bloc. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 63–88.Google Scholar
Zaprudnik, J. 1993. Belarus: At a crossroads in history. Boulder, CO: Westview PressGoogle Scholar