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Commons and Dynamics of Power in Medieval Southern Europe
A Comparison betweenNorthern Italy and the Duero Plateau (Seventh–FifteenthCenturies)
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 July 2023
Abstract
This article presents a comparative analysis ofthe commons in two broad regions of medieval southern Europe: northernItaly and the Iberian Peninsula’s Duero Plateau. Recent scholarship ondifferent regions of northern Europe has highlighted the centrality ofcommon lands to both agrosystems and the organization of communities,drawing on the economic theories of Elinor Ostrom and generallyfocusing on the early modern period. It has also suggested a contrastbetween resilient communities in northern Europe, where the presenceof stable commons helped absorb social inequality, and those ofsouthern Europe, where less solid commons supposedly resulted in lowercohesion among communities. Our longue-durée comparative study of these tworegions shows, however, that commons existed in southern Europe fromthe early medieval period on. It also reveals how they evolved andadapted throughout the High and late Middle Ages, in tandem with thedocumentary practices that recorded them. This resilience tookdifferent forms in each of the areas studied, reflecting the influenceof a range of different factors across southern Europe. The commonsendured because they were part of a “moral economy” of collective use,which, in constant dialogue with notions of property and ownership,helped forge lasting identities in both rural and urban contexts andon different scales.
Résumé
Cet article propose uneanalyse comparée de l’évolution des communs dans deux grandes régionsde l’Europe méridionale médiévale : l’Italie du centre-nord et leplateau du Duero dans la Péninsule ibérique. Au cours des dernièresannées, les recherches menées à partir des études économiques d’ElinorOstrom sur différentes régions d’Europe du Nord ont insisté sur lacentralité des communs dans l’agrosystème et l’organisation descommunautés depuis le haut Moyen Âge. Face à une Europe du Nordrésiliente, où la présence de biens communs stables a permis derésorber les inégalités sociales, les communs en Europe du Sudauraient été moins solides, entraînant une moindre cohésion descommunautés. L’étude comparative de longue durée des deux régions meten évidence l’existence de biens communs dès le début du Moyen Âge,puis leurs évolutions successives au Moyen Âge central et au bas MoyenÂge, en même temps que les pratiques documentaires qui les ontenregistrés. Cette résilience a pris des formes différentes danschacune des régions, en raison de facteurs contingents tout aussidivers. Partie prenante d’une « économie morale », les biens communauxont donc pu s’adapter à des conditions changeantes et à la présence denouveaux acteurs sociaux. Finalement, ces formes d’utilisationcollective, en dialogue constant avec les notions de propriété etd’appropriation, étaient liées à la création et à la pérennitéd’identités (rurales, urbaines) opérant à différentes échelles.
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- Research Article
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- © Éditions de l’EHESS 2023
Footnotes
*
This article was first published in French as “Communs et dynamiquesde pouvoir dans l’Europe du Sud médiévale. Une comparaison entrel’Italie du Nord et le plateau du Duero (viie-xvesiècle),” Annales HSS 77,no. 3 (2022): 511-42. Our study was supported by the Spanish Ministryof Science and Innovation (research projects HAR2016-76094-C4-4-R andPID2020-112506GB-C42). The sections on the Duero Plateau are by IñakiMartín Viso and those concerning northern Italy by RiccardoRao.
References
1 Martina De Moor, Leigh Shaw-Taylor, and Paul Warde, eds., The Management of Common Land in North West Europe, c. 1500–1850 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2002); Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
2 Jan Luiten van Zanden, “The Paradox of the Marks: The Exploitation of Commons in the Eastern Netherlands, 1250–1850,” Agricultural History Review 47, no. 2 (1999): 125–44; Bas van Bavel and Erik Thoen, “Rural History and the Environment: A Survey of the Relationship between Property Rights, Social Structures and Sustainability of Land Use,” in Rural Societies and Environments at Risk: Ecology, Property Rights and Social Organisation in Fragile Areas (Middle Ages–Twentieth Century), ed. Bas van Bavel and Erik Thoen (Turnhout: Brepols, 2013), 15–42; Tine De Moor, “The Silent Revolution: A New Perspective on the Emergence of Commons, Guilds, and Other Forms of Corporate Collective Action in Western Europe,” International Review of Social History 53, supplement 16 (2008): 179–212; Maïka De Keyzer, Inclusive Commons and the Sustainability of Peasant Communities in the Medieval Low Countries (London: Routledge, 2018).
3 Jean Birrell, “Common Rights in the Medieval Forest: Disputes and Conflicts in the Thirteenth Century,” Past & Present 117 (1987): 22–49. On Flanders, see the works cited in footnote 2 above.
4 Guido Alfani and Riccardo Rao, eds., La gestione delle risorse collettive. Italia settentrionale, secoli xii–xviii (Milan: FrancoAngeli, 2011); José Miguel Lana Berasain, “From Equilibrium to Equity. The Survival of the Commons in the Ebro Basin: Navarra from the 15th to the 20th Centuries,” International Journal of the Commons 2, no. 2 (2008): 162–91.
5 Daniel R. Curtis and Michele Campopiano, “Medieval Land Reclamation and the Creation of New Societies: Comparing Holland and the Po Valley, c. 800–c. 1500,” Journal of Historical Geography 44 (2014): 93–108.
6 Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science 162 (1968): 1243–48; Carol Rose, “The Comedy of the Commons: Custom, Commerce, and Inherently Public Property,” University of Chicago Law Review 53 (1986): 711–81; Ostrom, Governing the Commons.
7 Sandro Carocci, “Le comunalie di Orvieto fra la fine del xii e la metà del xiv secolo,” Mélanges de l’École française de Rome – Moyen Âge 99, no. 2 (1987): 701–28.
8 Alfonso X, Las siete partidas, ed. José Sánchez-Arcilla (Madrid: Reus, 2007), partida tercera, título XXVIII, ley XI, p. 569.
9 See especially Paolo Grossi, Il dominio e le cose. Percezioni medievali e moderne dei diritti reali (Milan: Giuffrè, 1992); Grossi, “Un altro modo di possedere.” L’emersione di forme alternative di proprietà alla coscienza giuridica postunitaria (Milan: Giuffré, 1977).
10 Among the individual works that had already drawn attention to the commons in the 1970s, see Andrea Castagnetti, “Primi aspetti di politica annonaria nell’Italia comunale. La bonifica della ‘palus comunis Verone’ (1194–1199),” Studi medievali 15, no. 1 (1974): 363–481.
11 On commons and the history of communes more generally, see the historiographical overview in Maria Teresa Caciorgna, “Beni comuni e storia comunale,” in I comuni di Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur. Percorsi storiografici, ed. Maria Teresa Caciorgna, Sandro Carocci, and Andrea Zorzi (Rome: Viella, 2014), 33–49.
12 Il bene comune. Forme di governo e gerarchie sociali nel basso medioevo, conference proceedings (Spoleto: Fondazione CISAM, 2012). At the European level, the reference work is the volume edited by Élodie Lecuppre Desjardin and Anne-Laure Van Bruaene, De bono communi: The Discourse and Practice of the Common Good in the European City (13th–16th C.) (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003).
13 For example, the evocatively titled contribution by Élisabeth Crouzet-Pavan, “‘Pour le bien commun…’: à propos des politiques urbaines dans l’Italie communale,” in Pouvoir et édilité. Les grands chantiers dans l’Italie communale et seigneuriale, ed. Élisabeth Crouzet-Pavan (Rome: École française de Rome, 2003), 11–40.
14 Igor Mineo, “Cose in comune e bene comune. L’ideologia della comunità in Italia nel tardo Medioevo,” in The Languages of Political Society: Western Europe, 14th–17th Centuries, ed. Andrea Gamberini, Jean-Phillippe Genet, and Andrea Zorzi (Rome: Viella, 2011), 39–67, here p. 53.
15 Andrea Castagnetti, “La campanea e i beni comuni della città,” in L’ambiente vegetale nell’alto Medioevo (Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 1990), 1:137–74.
16 Sandro Carocci, “‘Metodo regressivo’ e possessi collettivi: i ‘demani’ del Mezzogiorno (sec. xii–xviii),” in Écritures de l’espace social. Mélanges d’histoire médiévale offerts à Monique Bourin, ed. Didier Boisseuil et al. (Paris: Éd. de la Sorbonne, 2010), 541–55. On the southern Italian juridical tradition of “civic usages,” see Stefano Barbacetto, “Servitù di pascolo, ‘civicus usus’ e beni comuni nell’opera di Giovanni Battista De Luca († 1683),” in Cosa apprendere della proprietà collettiva. La consuetudine fra tradizione e modernità, ed. Pietro Nervi (Padua: Edizioni Cedam, 2003), 267–97.
17 To begin with, see Euride Fregni, ed., “Terre e comunità nell’Italia Padana. Il caso delle Partecipanze Agrarie Emiliane: da beni comuni a beni collettivi,” special issue, Cheiron. Materiali e strumenti di aggiornamento storiografico 14/15 (1990–1991); Marco Bicchierai, Beni comuni e usi civici nella Toscana tardomedievale: materiali per una ricerca (Florence/Venice: Giunta regionale Toscana/Marsilio, 1995); Renzo Zagnoni, ed., Comunità e beni comuni dal Medioevo ad oggi (Bologna: Gruppo di Studi Alta Valle del Reno-Società Pistoiese di Storia patria, 2007).
18 Diego Moreno and Osvaldo Raggio, eds., “Risorse collettive,” special issue, Quaderni storici 81 (1992). As the editors note, this volume should be taken together with two essays published in issue 79 of the journal, “developed within the same project”: Osvaldo Raggio, “Forme e pratiche di appropriazione delle risorse. Casi di usurpazione delle comunaglie in Liguria,” Quaderni storici 79 (1992): 135–69, and Jean-René Trochet, “Terre comuni nel nord-est della Francia e nel massiccio armoricano: genesi, usi, pratiche,” Quaderni storici 79 (1992): 105–34.
19 Joaquín Costa, Colectivismo agrario en España. Doctrinas y hechos (Madrid: Imprenta de San Francisco de Sales, 1898).
20 See Jorge Dias, Rio de Onor. Comunitarismo agro-pastoril (Lisbon: Editorial Presença, 1984); and Luis Ángel Sánchez Gómez, Sayago. Ganadería y comunalismo agropastoril (Zamora: Caja España, 1991).
21 Abilio Barbero and Marcelo Vigil, La formación del feudalismo en la Península Ibérica (Barcelona: Crítica, 1978).
22 Reyna Pastor, Resistencias y luchas campesinas en la época del crecimiento y consolidación de la formación feudal. Castilla y León, siglos x–xiii (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1980); José Ángel García de Cortázar, La sociedad rural en la España medieval (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1988).
23 Carmen Díez Herrera, La formación de la sociedad feudal en Cantabria (Santander: Universidad de Cantabria/Asamblea de Cantabria, 1990), 117–28.
24 José Ángel García de Cortázar, “La serna, una etapa del proceso de ocupación y explotación del espacio,” En la España Medieval 1 (1980): 115–28; Esperanza Botella Pombo, La serna. Ocupación, organización y explotación del espacio en la Edad Media (800–1250) (Santander: Tantín, 1988).
25 José María Mínguez Fernández, “Ganadería, aristocracia y reconquista en la Edad Media castellana,” Hispania 151 (1982): 341–54; Iñaki Martín Viso, Poblamiento y estructuras sociales en el norte de la Península Ibérica (siglos vi–xiii) (Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000).
26 Juan José Larrea Conde, “Aldeas navarras y aldeas del Duero: notas para una perspectiva comparada,” Edad Media. Revista de Historia 6 (2003–2004): 159–81; Iñaki Martín Viso, “Commons and the Construction of Power in the Early Middle Ages: Tenth-Century León and Castile,” Journal of Medieval History 46, no. 4 (2020): 373–95.
27 Margarita Fernández Mier and Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, “El aprovechamiento de los espacios comunales en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica entre el período romano y el medieval,” Il Capitale Culturale: Studies on the Value of Cultural Heritage 12 (2015): 689–717.
28 Ángel Barrios García, Estructuras agrarias y de poder en Castilla. El ejemplo de Ávila (1085–1320), 2 vols. (Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca/Institución Gran Duque de Alba, 1983–1984); Jesús Martínez Moro, La Tierra en la comunidad de Segovia. Un proyecto señorial urbano (1088–1500) (Valladolid: Ediciones Universidad de Valladolid, 1985); José María Monsalvo Antón, “Comunales de aldea, comunales de ciudad-y-tierra. Algunos aspectos de los aprovechamientos comunitarios en los concejos medievales de Ciudad Rodrigo, Salamanca y Ávila,” in El lugar del campesino. En torno a la obra de Reyna Pastor, ed. Ana Rodríguez (Valencia: Universitàt de Valencia, 2007), 141–78.
29 Roland Viader, L’Andorre du ixe au xive siècle. Montagne, féodalité et communautés (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail, 2003); Guillermo Tomás Faci, Montañas, comunidades y cambio social en el Pirineo medieval. Ribagorza en los siglos x–xiv (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Midi, 2016).
30 Esther Pascua Echegaray, Señores del paisaje. Ganadería y recursos naturales en Aragón, siglos xiii–xvii (Valencia: Universitàt de Valencia, 2012).
31 Carmen Argente del Castillo Ocaña, La ganadería medieval andaluza, siglos xiii–xvi (Reino de Jaén y Córdoba), 2 vols. (Jaén: Diputación Provincial de Jaén, 1991); María Antonia Carmona Ruiz, “Los bienes comunales y su papel en la economía rural de Carmona,” in Carmona, 7000 años de historia rural, ed. Manuel González Jiménez (Carmona: Ayuntamiento de Carmona, 2011), 285–306.
32 José Luis del Pino, “Pleitos y usurpaciones de tierras realengas en Córdoba a finales del siglo xv: la villa de Las Posadas,” Estudios de Historia de España 12, no. 1 (2010): 117–60; María Dolores García Oliva, “Usurpaciones de tierras comunales en el término de Plasencia a fines de la Edad Media,” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 35, no. 1 (2017): 157–78; Javier Plaza de Agustín, Tierras comunales y lucha por el poder en la Guadalajara medieval (Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, 2021).
33 See the projects cited in the initial footnote, now finished; this article is one of the research outcomes.
34 Claudio Azzara and Stefano Gasparri, eds., Le leggi dei Longobardi. Storia, memoria e diritto di un popolo germanico (Rome: Viella, 2005), 92, § 319–20.
35 Riccardo Rao and Igor Santos Salazar, “Risorse di pubblico uso e beni comuni nell’Italia settentrionale: Lombardia, 569–1100,” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 37, no. 1 (2019): 29–51; Vito Loré, “Spazi e forme dei beni pubblici nell’alto medioevo. Il regno longobardo,” in Spazio pubblico e spazio privato. Tra storia e archeologia (secoli vi–xi), ed. Giovanna Bianchi, Maria Cristina La Rocca, and Tiziana Lazzari (Turnhout: Brepols, 2018), 59–87.
36 The open fields of the early Middle Ages are an elusive presence in Italian documentation, but their existence is explained in a passage from the Edictum Rothari: Azzara and Gasparri, Le leggi dei Longobardi, 102, § 358.
37 Two pieces of information may be deduced from these arrangements. First, that comunalia are included in the lists of properties adjacent to the plots undergoing transition (and hence that we are dealing not just with a right, but with estates permanently reserved for collective use); and second, that the documents mention the quotas of common goods assigned to certain owners, sometimes even specifying their extension.
38 Rao and Santos Salazar, “Risorse di pubblico uso,” 38–40.
39 Within the extensive bibliography on the existence (or non-existence) of communities in the early Middle Ages, see Elisabeth Zadora-Rio, “The Making of Churchyards and Parish Territories in the Early Medieval Landscape of France and England in the 7th–12th Centuries: A Reconsideration,” Medieval Archaeology 47, no. 1 (2003): 1–19; Chris Wickham, “Space and Society in Early Medieval Peasant Conflicts,” in Uomo e spazio nell’alto Medioevo, conference proceedings (Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 2003), 551–86.
40 Pablo C. Díaz, “Cerdos y otras bestias. Pastos comunales/pastos públicos en la Lex Visigothorum,” Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 51, no. 2 (2021): 15–33.
41 Antonio Blanco-González et al., “Medieval Landscapes in the Spanish Central System (450–1350): A Palaeoenvironmental and Historical Perspective,” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 7, no. 1 (2015): 1–17.
42 Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo and Alfonso Vigil-Escalera, “Archaeology of Medieval Peasantry in Northwestern Iberia,” in Mediterranean Landscapes in Post-Antiquity: New Frontiers and New Perspectives, ed. Sauro Gelichi and Lauro Olmo-Enciso (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2019), 129–44, here p. 132.
43 Iñaki Martín Viso and Antonio Blanco González, “Ancestral Memories and Early Medieval Landscapes: The Case of Sierra de Ávila (Spain),” Early Medieval Europe 24, no. 4 (2016): 393–422.
44 García de Cortázar, “La serna, una etapa del proceso”; Botella Pombo, La serna; Juan José Larrea Conde, “Construir iglesias, construir territorios: las dos fases altomedievales de San Román de Tobillas (Álava),” in Monasteria et territoria. Elites, edilicia y territorio en el Mediterráneo medieval (siglos v–xi), ed. Jorge López Quiroga, Artemio Manuel Martínez Tejera, and Jorge Morín de Pablos (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2007), 321–36. On the two levels of organization, see Martín Viso, “Commons and the Construction of Power.”
45 Iñaki Martín Viso, “Las propiedades regias y la formación del Reino Asturleonés (850–950),” in Biens publics, biens du roi. Les bases économiques des pouvoirs royaux dans le haut Moyen Âge, ed. François Bougard and Vito Loré (Turnhout: Brepols, 2019), 179–212.
46 Álvaro Carvajal Castro, “Prácticas colectivas y gestión de los espacios agrarios en la Alta Edad Media: una perspectiva comparada desde Irlanda y el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica,” Historia Agraria 73 (2017): 151–83, here p. 165.
47 Julio Escalona, “In the Name of a Distant King: Representing Royal Authority in the County of Castile, c. 900–1038,” Early Medieval Europe 24, no. 1 (2016): 74–102; Igor Santos Salazar, “Competition in the Frontiers of the Asturian Kingdom: The Comites of Castile, Lantarón and Álava (860–940),” in Coopétition. Rivaliser, coopérer dans les sociétés du haut Moyen Âge (500–1100), ed. Régine Le Jan, Geneviève Bührer-Thierry, and Stefano Gasparri (Turnhout: Brepols, 2018), 231–51.
48 Martín Viso, “Commons and the Construction of Power.”
49 Ernesto Pastor Díaz de Garayo, Castilla en el tránsito de la Antigüedad al feudalismo. Poblamiento, poder político y estructura social del Arlanza al Duero (siglos vii–xi) (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León, 1996), 160–61.
50 For example, the orchards and flax fields of the concilio (a term used to refer to the community) of Marialba de la Ribera. See Emilio Sánchez and Carlos Sánchez, eds., Colección documental del Archivo de la Catedral de León (775–1230), vol. 2, 935–985 (León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación San Isidoro, 1987), doc. 293. On Pardomino, see Álvaro Carvajal Castro, “Resistencias campesinas en el noroeste ibérico altomedieval: confrontando la tragedia,” Revista de Historia Jerónimo Zurita 95 (2019): 13–33, here pp. 31–32.
51 Chris Wickham, Comunità e clientele nella Toscana del xii secolo. Le origini del comune rurale nella Piana di Lucca (Rome: Viella, 1995), 199–205.
52 Riccardo Rao, “Beni comuni e identità di villaggio (Lombardia, secoli xi–xii),” in Paesaggi, comunità, villaggi medievali, ed. Paola Galetti, 2 vols. (Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo, 2012), 1:327–43.
53 A process of definition that made it possible to define the commons in territorial terms—although this did not always entail the tracing of unbroken, linear boundaries—has been highlighted in relation to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Luigi Provero, “Una cultura dei confini. Liti, inchieste e testimonianze nel Piemonte del Duecento,” Reti Medievali. Rivista 7, no. 1 (2006): https://doi.org/10.6092/1593-2214/165.
54 Mario Marrocchi, “Lo sfruttamento di un’area umida: comunità locali e città nella Val di Chiana centrale (secoli xii–xvi),” Riparia 3 (2017): 58–94.
55 Riccardo Rao, “Abitare, costruire e gestire uno spazio fluviale: signori, villaggi e beni comuni lungo la Sesia tra Medioevo ed età moderna,” in I paesaggi fluviali della Sesia fra storia e archeologia. Territori, insediamenti, rappresentazioni, ed. Riccardo Rao (Florence: All’insegna del giglio, 2016), 13–29.
56 Bicchierai, Beni comuni e usi civici.
57 Paola Guglielmotti, Comunità e territorio. Villaggi del Piemonte medievale (Rome: Viella, 2001), 207–28; Gian Maria Varanini, “Beni comuni di più comuni rurali. Gli statuti della Comugna Fiana (territorio veronese, 1288),” in Città e territori nell’Italia del medioevo. Studi in onore di Gabriella Rossetti, ed. Giorgio Chittolini, Giovanna Petti Balbi, and Giovanni Vitolo (Naples: Liguori, 2007), 115–37.
58 Riccardo Rao, “De la gestion directe au service public. L’exploitation des communaux marécageux et des lagunes dans les campagnes littorales de l’Italie du centre-nord au Moyen Âge,” in Le paysan et la mer. Ruralités littorales et maritimes en Europe au Moyen Âge et à l’Époque moderne, ed. Jean-Luc Sarrazin and Thierry Sauzeau (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Midi, 2020), 33–50.
59 Javier Gómez Gómez and Iñaki Martín Viso, “Rationes y decimas: evidencias sobre la gestión de las sernas en el siglo xi en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica,” Espacio, tiempo y forma. Serie III. Historia medieval 34 (2021): 359–82.
60 See the cases of Valdeúnco or Arce: José María Fernández Catón, ed., Colección documental del Archivo de la Catedral de León (775–1230), vol. 5, 1109–1187 (León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación San Isidoro, 1990), doc. 1518 (1162/06/13); Fernando García Andreva, ed., El Becerro Galicano de San Millán de la Cogolla. Edición y estudio (Logroño: Cilengua, 2010), doc. CCCXLIV.1 (1186/06).
61 Iñaki Martín Viso, “Mancomunales, identidad comunitaria y economía moral en el norte de la Península Ibérica (siglos x–xii),” Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 51, no. 2 (2021): 63–90.
62 Julio Escalona, “Mapping Scale Change: Hierarchization and Fission in Castilian Rural Communities during the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries,” in People and Space in the Middle Ages, 300–1300, ed. Wendy Davies, Guy Halsall, and Andrew Reynolds (Turnhout: Brepols, 2007), 143–66.
63 Carlos M. Reglero de la Fuente, Espacio y poder en la Castilla medieval. Los Montes de Torozos (siglos x–xiv) (Valladolid: Diputación de Valladolid, 1994), 226.
64 José María Mínguez Fernández, Las sociedades feudales, vol. 1, Antecedentes, formación y expansión (siglos vi al xiii) (Madrid: Nerea, 1994), 140.
65 For these arguments, see Martín Viso, “Mancomunales, identidad comunitaria y economía moral,” 76–80.
66 For two cases of trial by ordeal, see Julia Montenegro Valentin, ed., Colección diplomática de Santa María de Piasca (875–1252) (Santander: Consejería de Cultura, educación, juventud y deporte, 1991), doc. 34 (1050); and García Andreva, El Becerro Galicano, doc. CCXXVII.e.1 (1097).
67 Carlos M. Reglero de la Fuente, “Las comunidades de habitantes en los fueros del Reino de León (1068–1253),” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 35, no. 2 (2017): 13–35, here p. 23.
68 Pascual Martínez Sopena, “La Reforma de la Iglesia y las comunidades campesinas: León y Castilla en el siglo xi,” in Penser la paysannerie médiévale, un défi impossible? Recueil d’études offert à Jean-Pierre Devroey, ed. Alain Dierkens, Nicolas Schroeder, and Alexis Wilkin (Paris: Éd. de la Sorbonne, 2017), 347–61, here pp. 354–61; Mariel Pérez, “Proprietary Churches, Episcopal Authority and Social Relationships in the Diocese of León (Eleventh–Twelfth Centuries),” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 10, no. 2 (2018): 195–212, here pp. 205–207.
69 Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo and Igor Santos Salazar, “Founding and Owning Churches in Early Medieval Álava (North Spain): The Creation, Transmission, and Monumentalization of Memory,” in Churches and Social Power in Early Medieval Europe: Integrating Archaeological and Historical Approaches, ed. José C. Sánchez Pardo and Michael G. Shapland (Turnhout: Brepols, 2015), 35–68.
70 Riccardo Rao, “Le inchieste patrimoniali nei comuni dell’Italia settentrionale (xii–xiv secolo),” in Quand gouverner c’est enquêter. Les pratiques politiques de l’enquête princière (Occident, xiiie– xive siècles), ed. Thierry Pécout (Paris: De Boccard, 2010), 285–98.
71 Massimo Vallerani, “Logica della documentazione e logica dell’istituzione. Per una rilettura dei documenti in forma di lista nei comuni italiani della prima metà del xiii secolo,” in Notariato e medievistica. Per i cento anni di Studi e ricerche di diplomatica comunale di Pietro Torelli, ed. Isabella Lazzarini and Giuseppe Gardoni (Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il medioevo, 2013), 109–45, here pp. 111–14.
72 Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur, Cavaliers et citoyens. Guerre, conflits et société dans l’Italie communale, xiie– xiiie siècles (Paris: Éd. de l’EHESS, 2003). On this issue, see also Paolo Grillo, “Il Comune di Milano e il problema dei beni pubblici fra xii e xiii secolo. Da un processo del 1207,” Mélanges de l’École française de Rome – Moyen Âge 113, no. 1 (2001): 433–51; and Riccardo Rao, Comunia. Le risorse collettive nel Piemonte comunale (Milan: Led Edizioni Universitarie, 2008), 42–43, for the case in Vercelli in 1192.
73 Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur, “Révolution documentaire et révolution scripturaire: le cas de l’Italie médiévale,” Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes 153, no. 1 (1995): 177–85.
74 Francesco Panero, Due borghi franchi padani. Popolamento ed assetto urbanistico e territoriale di Trino e Tricerro nel secolo xiii (Vercelli: Società Storica Vercellese, 1979); Riccardo Rao, “‘Stérile et infertile’: gaspillage et dilapidation dans la gestion des biens communaux durant le bas Moyen Âge (villes de l’Italie septentrionale, siècles xiie–xiiie),” in La dilapidation de l’Antiquité au xixe siècle. Aliénations illicites, dépenses excessives et gaspillage des biens et ressources à caractère public, ed. Bruno Lemesle (Dijon: Éditions universitaires de Dijon, 2014), 127–43.
75 José Luis Sáinz Guerra, ed., Las villas nuevas medievales en Castilla y León (Valladolid: Ediciones Universidad de Valladolid, 2014).
76 José María Monsalvo Antón, “Los territorios de las villas reales de la Vieja Castilla, siglos xi–xiv: antecedentes, génesis y evolución (Estudio a partir de una docena de sistemas concejiles entre el Arlanza y el Alto Ebro),” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 17 (1999): 15–86.
77 See the case of Pancorbo in Gonzalo Martínez Díez, ed., Fueros locales en el territorio de la provincia de Burgos (Burgos: Caja de Ahorros Municipal de Burgos, 1982), doc. 18 (1147/03/08).
78 As in the case of Lerma. See Julio González, Reinado y diplomas de Fernando III (Córdoba: Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros de Córdoba, 1980–1986), doc. 221.
79 Reglero de la Fuente, Espacio y poder en la Castilla medieval, 226–30.
80 Barrios García, Estructuras agrarias y de poder en Castilla; José María Monsalvo Antón, “Frontera pionera, monarquía en expansión y formación de los concejos de Villa y Tierra. Relaciones de poder en el realengo concejil entre el Duero y la cuenca del Tajo (c. 1072–c. 1222),” Arqueología y territorio medieval 10, no. 2 (2003): 45–126.
81 Barrios García, Estructuras agrarias y de poder en Castilla, 2:121–26.
82 Iñaki Martín Viso, “Territorios resilientes: mancomunales y concejos en el Sur del Duero durante la Edad Media,” Vínculos de Historia 9 (2020): 226–45.
83 Antonio Blanco-González and Iñaki Martín Viso, “Tumbas, parroquias y espacios ganaderos: configuración y evolución del paisaje medieval de la Sierra de Ávila,” Historia Agraria 69 (2016): 11–41.
84 Monsalvo Antón, “Comunales de aldea.”
85 See the case of the devasos (an enigmatic term applied to certain common areas) in the concejo of Ciudad Rodrigo: Martín Viso, “Territorios resilientes,” 237–39; Monsalvo Antón, “Comunales de aldea,” 158–69.
86 On England itself, where the scholarship has concentrated on the late Middle Ages and the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, see in particular J. A. Yelling, Common Field and Enclosure in England, 1450–1859 (Hamden: Palgrave, 1977); Roger B. Manning, Village Revolts: Social Protests and Popular Disturbance in England, 1509–1640 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: The Agricultural Development of the South Midlands 1450–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); Nicholas Blomley, “Making Private Property: Enclosure, Common Right and the Work of Hedges,” Rural History 18 (2007): 1–24, as well as the dedicated bibliography on the site Collective Action: http://www.collective-action.info/_BIB_Main.
87 Crucial contributions include Monique Bourin et al., “Les campagnes de la Méditerranée occidentale autour de 1300: tensions destructrices, tensions novatrices,” Annales HSS 66, no. 3 (2011): 663–704; Paolo Grillo and François Menant, eds., La congiuntura del primo Trecento in Lombardia (1290–1360) (Rome: École française de Rome, 2019).
88 Samuel K. Cohn Jr., “Inventing Braudel’s Mountains: The Florentine Alps after the Black Death,” in Portraits of Medieval and Renaissance Living: Essays in Honor of David Herlihy, ed. Samuel K. Cohn Jr. and Steven A. Epstein (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 383–416.
89 For an overview, see Sandro Carocci, “Il dibattito teorico sulla congiuntura del Trecento,” Archeologia medievale 40 (2016): 17–32; and Maria Ginatempo, “Processi di impoverimento nelle campagne e nei centri minori dell’Italia centrosettentrionale nel tardo medioevo,” in El empobrecimiento. Economías de la pobreza en la Edad Media, ed. Sandro Carocci et al. (Madrid/Rome: Casa de Velázquez/École française de Rome, forthcoming).
90 Massimo Della Misericordia, Divenire comunità. Comuni rurali, poteri locali, identità sociali e territoriali in Valtellina e nella montagna lombarda nel tardo medioevo (Milan: Unicopli, 2006), 186–89; Bas van Bavel, The Invisible Hand? How Market Economics Have Emerged and Declined since AD 500 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 97–144.
91 Stefano Barbacetto, “La più gelosa delle pubbliche regalie”. I “beni communali” della Repubblica Veneta tra dominio della Signoria e diritti delle comunità (secoli xv–xviii) (Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, 2008); Riccardo Rao, “Dal comune alla corona: l’evoluzione dei beni comunali durante le dominazioni angioine nel Piemonte sud-occidentale,” in Gli Angiò nell’Italia nord-occidentale (1259–1382), ed. Rinaldo Comba (Milan: Unicopli, 2006), 139–60; Davide Cristoferi, Il “reame” di Siena: la costruzione della Dogana dei Paschi e lo sviluppo della transumanza in Maremma (metà xiv–inizi xv secolo) (Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il medioevo, 2021).
92 Marco Casari and Maurizio Lisciandra, “Gender Discrimination in Property Rights: Six Centuries of Commons Governance in the Alps,” Journal of Economic History 76, no. 2 (2016): 559–94.
93 Raggio, “Forme e pratiche di appropriazione delle risorse.”
94 Riccardo Rao, “Ripensando la gestione dei commons fra quattro e cinquecento. Public utilities, usurpazioni e pratiche di terreno nella pianura vercellese,” Quaderni storici 164 (2020): 467–96.
95 Isabel Alfonso Antón, “Iglesias rurales en el Norte de Castilla: una dimensión religiosa de las luchas campesinas durante la Edad Media,” in Sombras del progreso. Las huellas de la historia agraria, ed. Ricardo Robledo (Barcelona: Crítica, 2010), 27–65.
96 María Asenjo González, Espacio y sociedad en la Soria Medieval (siglos xiii–xv) (Soria: Diputación de Soria, 1999), 337–43; José María Monsalvo Antón, “Usurpaciones de comunales. Conflicto social y disputa legal en Ávila y su Tierra durante la Baja Edad Media,” Historia Agraria 24 (2001): 89–122.
97 José María Monsalvo Antón, “Aspectos de las culturas políticas de los caballeros y los pecheros en Salamanca y Ciudad Rodrigo a mediados del siglo xv. Violencias rurales y debates sobre el poder en los concejos,” in “Lucha política. Condena y legitimación en la España medieval,” ed. Isabel Alfonso Antón, Julio Escalona, and Georges Martín, special issue, Annexes des Cahiers de linguistique et de civilisation hispaniques médiévales 16 (2004): 237–96.
98 Monsalvo Antón, “Comunales de aldea,” 167–68.
99 Hilario Casado Alonso, Señores, mercaderes y campesinos: la comarca de Burgos a fines de la Edad Media (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León, 1987); María Asenjo González, Segovia. La ciudad y su tierra a fines del Medievo (Segovia: Diputación de Segovia, 1986), 179–181; Corina Julia Luchía, “Por que los montes de esta villa se conserben, e no se disipen como al presente estan: la regulación de los recursos forestales en la Corona de Castilla (siglos xiv–xv),” Espacio, tiempo y forma. Serie III. Historia medieval 33 (2020): 303–32.
100 Hilarión Pascual Gete, “Las tierras sernas de Medina y su Tierra: peculiaridad jurídica y trascendencia socioeconómica de una propiedad concejil en el Antiguo Régimen,” in Historia de Medina del Campo y su tierra, vol. 1, Nacimiento y expansión, ed. Eufemio Lorenzo Sanz (Medina del Campo: Ayuntamiento de Medina del Campo, 1986), 369–404.
101 David E. Vassberg, La venta de tierras baldías. El comunitarismo agrario y la Corona de Castilla durante el siglo xvi (Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones Agrarias, 1983).
102 Joseph Morsel, “Appropriation communautaire du territoire, ou appropriation territoriale de la communauté? Observations en guise de conclusion,” Hypothèses 9, no. 1 (2006): 89–104.
103 Works of reference include Jacques Krynen, Idéal du prince et pouvoir royal en France à la fin du Moyen Âge (1380–1440). Étude de la littérature politique du temps (Paris: Éditions A. et J. Picard, 1981), 303–312; Guillaume Leyte, Domaine et domanialité publique dans la France médiévale ( xiie– xve siècles) (Strasbourg: Presses universitaires de Strasbourg, 1996), 170–72, 219–58, and 415–32.
104 Luigi Provero, Le parole dei sudditi. Azioni e scritture della politica contadina nel Duecento (Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 2012), 100–106.
105 Paola Guglielmotti, “Introduzione,” in “Distinguere, separare, condividere. Confini nelle campagne dell’Italia medievale,” ed. Paola Guglielmotti, special issue, Reti medievali. Rivista 7, no. 1 (2006): 1–12; Elisabeth Zadora Rio, “Communautés rurales, territoires et limites,” in Galetti, Paesaggi, comunità, villaggi medievali, 1:79–90.
106 Edward P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: The New Press, 1993); Jean-Pierre Devroey, La Nature et le roi. Environnement, pouvoir et société à l’âge de Charlemagne (740–820) (Paris: Albin Michel, 2019), 375–93. This by no means involved the acceptance of egalitarianism, since inequality was already an intrinsic element of the commons. See Daniel R. Curtis, “Did the Commons Make Medieval and Early Modern Rural Societies More Equitable? A Survey of Evidence from across Western Europe, 1300–1800,” Journal of Agrarian Change 16, no. 4 (2015): 646–64.