Hostname: page-component-5c6d5d7d68-ckgrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-08-18T17:18:13.109Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Avian cognition and the implications for captive parrot welfare

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

HS Starenchak Baukhagen  and
MD Engell
HS Starenchak Baukhagen*
Affiliation:
North Carolina State University, Department of Biological Sciences, David Clark Labs 150, Box 7617, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
MD Engell
Affiliation:
North Carolina State University, Department of Biological Sciences, David Clark Labs 150, Box 7617, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
*
* Contact for correspondence: hsstaren@ncsu.edu
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Previously assumed to be unintelligent animals, many species of birds display high levels of cognition and may even possess conscious awareness. In particular, both corvids and parrots have been the focus of cognitive research including studies on problem-solving, social intelligence, and sentience. Despite their similar neural architecture and cognitive abilities, the laws regarding these two families of birds differ greatly. In the United States, it is illegal to keep corvids as pets. Parrots, however, are one of the most commonly kept pets in America, although their care in captivity remains largely unregulated. Captive parrots suffer from a number of medical and psychological issues and experience high rates of neglect and abandonment. At the same time, wild parrot populations are dwindling due both to habitat loss and capture for the pet trade. This review examines the novel findings on avian cognition and applies them to the potential ethical implications of keeping parrots in captivity. In addition, suggestions for future directions are presented, including the development of legislation to protect captive and wild parrots.

Keywords

animal ethicsanimal welfareavian cognitioncaptive parrotsparrot welfarepsittacines
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , May 2022 , pp. 257 - 267
Copyright
© 2022 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Aengus, W and Millam, J 1999 Taming parent-reared orange-winged Amazon parrots by neonatal handing. Zoobiology 18: 17–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1999)18:3<177::AID-ZOO2>3.0.CO;2-DGoogle Scholar
Ahola, M, Vapalahti, K and Lohi, H 2017 Early weaning increases aggression and stereotypic behaviour in cats. Scientific Reports 7: 10412. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11173-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Veterinary Medical Association 2018 2017-2018 Edition AVMA Pet Ownership and Demographics Sourcebook pp 58–63, 122-141, 194-201. American Veterinary Medical Association: Illinois, USAGoogle Scholar
Andrei, M 2021 Why it's illegal to own one guinea pig in Switzerland. ZME Science. https://www.zmescience.com/ecology/animals-ecolo-gy/guinea-pig-switzerland/Google Scholar
Auersperg, A, Szaboo, B, von Bayern, A and Kacelink, A 2012 Spontaneous innovation in tool manufacture and use in a Goffin's cockatoo. Current Biology 22: PR903–R904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auersperg, A and von Bayern, A 2019 Who's a clever bird - now? A brief history of parrot cognition. Behaviour 156: 391–407. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003550CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auersperg, A, van Horik, J, Bugnyar, T, Kacelink, A, Emery, N and von Bayern, A 2015 Combinatory actions during object play in Psittaciformes (Diopsittaca nobilis, Pionites melanocephala, Cacatua goffini) and Corvids (Corvus corax, C. monedula, C. moneduloides). Journal of Comparative Psychology 129: 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038314CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bordnick, P, Thyer, B and Ritchie, B 1994 Feather picking disorder and trichotillomania: an avian model of human psychopathology. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 25: 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(94)90019-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braitman, L 2014 Animal Madness pp 152–185. Simon & Schuster: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Brando, S and Buchanan-Smith, H 2018 The 24/7 approach to promoting optimal welfare for captive wild animals. Behavioural Processes 156: 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2017.09.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burger, J 2001 The Parrot Who Owns Me pp 207–236. Villard Books: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Burn, C 2017 Bestial boredom: a biological perspective on animal boredom and suggestions for its scientific investigation. Animal Behaviour 130: 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.06.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, A and Cotterill, R 2006 Mammalian and avian neuroanatomy and the question of consciousness in birds. The Biological Bulletin 211: 106–127. https://doi.org/10.2307/4134586CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
California Legislative Counsel 2017 Assembly Bill No485 Chapter 740 Legislative Counsel's Digest. https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB485Google Scholar
Clayton, N and Emery, N 2007 The social life of corvids. Current Biology 17: R652–R656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.070CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clements, K, Gray, S, Gross, B and Pepperberg, I 2018 Initial evidence for probabilistic reasoning in a grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Journal of Comparative Psychology 132: 166–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colbert-White, E, Hall, H and Fragaszy, D 2015 Variations in an African Grey parrot's speech patterns following ignored and denied requests. Animal Cognition 19: 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0946-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collette, J, Millam, J, Klasing, K and Wakenell, P 2000 Neonatal handling of Amazon parrots alters the stress response and immune function. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 66: 335–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00098-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craft, L and Perna, F 2004 The benefits of exercise for the clinically depressed. The Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 6: 104–111. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.v06n0301CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crean, J 2020 Avian raw whole food nutrition. American Federation of Aviculture Virtual Conference. 17 October, 2020. Phoenix Landing, USAGoogle Scholar
Cussen, V and Mench, J 2015 The relationship between personality dimensions and resiliency to environmental stress in orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica), as indicated by the development of abnormal behaviours. PLoS One 10: e0126170. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Almeida, A, Palme, R and Moreira, N 2018 How environmental enrichment affects behavioral and glucocorticoid responses in captive blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara ararauna). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 201: 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.12.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, J and Bond, A 2003 A comparative analysis of social play in birds. Papers in Behavior and Biological Sciences 35: 1091–1115. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853903322589650Google Scholar
Diamond, J and Bond, A 2020 Meet the authors: Judy Diamond and Alan Bond, ‘Thinking Like a Parrot.’ 7 November 2020, Phoenix Landing, USA. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226248813.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Echols, S 2020 The grey parrot project and why necropsies are important. Phoenix Landing Wellness Retreat Conference. 17 May 2020, Phoenix Landing, USAGoogle Scholar
Engebretson, M 2006 The welfare and suitability of parrots as companion animals: a review. Animal Welfare 15: 263–276Google Scholar
Fagen, R 1977 Selection for optimal age-dependent schedules of play behavior. The American Naturalist 111: 395–414. https://doi.org/10.1086/283175CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, J, Meehan, C and Mench, J 2002 Stereotypes in caged parrots, schizophrenia and autism: evidence for a common mechanism. Behavioural Brain Research 145: 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(03)00115-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goswami, S, Patel, S, Kadivar, R, Tyagi, P, Malik, P and Mondol, S 2021 Effects of a combined enrichment intervention on the behavioural and physiological welfare of captive Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) Applied Animal Behaviour Science 236: E48–E53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105222CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, R, Montrose, V and Wills, A 2017 ExNOTic: Should we be keeping exotic pets? Animals 7: 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani7060047CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greco, B, Meehan, C, Miller, L, Shepherdson, D, Morfeld, K, Andrews, J, Maker, A, Carlstead, K and Mench, J 2016 Elephant management in North American zoos: Environmental enrichment, feeding, exercise, and training. PLoS One 11(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152490CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunturkun, O and Bugnyar, T 2016 Cognition without cortex. Trends in Cognitive Science 20: 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.02.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinsohn, R, Zdenek, C, Cunningham, R, Endler, J and Langmore, N 2017 Tool-assisted drumming in palm cockatoos shares key elements of human instrumental music. Science Advances 3: e1602399. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1602399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hobson, E, Avery, M and Wright, T 2020 The socioecology of monk parakeets: Insights into parrot social complexity. The Auk 131: 756–775. https://doi.org/10.1642/AUK-14-14.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, G 1996 Manufacture and use of hook-tools by New Caledonian crows. Nature 379: 249–251. https://doi.org/10.1038/379249a0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurt, M, Stella, J and Croney, C 2015 Implications of weaning age for dog welfare. Purdue Extension VA-11-W: 1-3Google Scholar
Kaplan, G 2020 Play behaviour, not tool using, relates to brain mass in a sample of birds. Scientific Reports 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76572-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, A, Colbert-White, E and Burgess, C 2013 Higher-order semantic structures in an African Grey parrot's vocalizations: evidence from the hyperspace analog to language (HAL) model. Animal Cognition 16: 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0613-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, D, Rae, J and Menzel, K 2007 The true nature of parrots. Avian Welfare Coalition. http://www.avianwelfare.org/issues/arti-cles/truenature.htmGoogle Scholar
Lumeij, J and Hommers, C 2007 Foraging ‘enrichment’ as treatment for pterotillomania. Applied Animal Behavior Science 111: 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.05.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kikusui, T, Takeuchi, Y and Mori, Y 2004 Early weaning induces anxiety and aggression in adult mice. Physiology & Behavior 81: 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2003.12.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korsgaard, C 2018 Fellow Creatures pp 53–74. Oxford University Press: New York, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198753858.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, K and Barton, R 2004 Playing for keeps. Evolutionary relation-ship between social play and the cerebellum in nonhuman primates. Human Nature 15: 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-004-1001-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddocks, S, Goldsmith, A and Cuthill, I 2002 Behavioural and physiological effects of absence of ultraviolet wavelength on European starlings Sturnus vulgaris. Journal of Avian Biology 33: 103–106. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330117.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magat, M and Brown, C 2009 Laterality enhances cognition in Australian parrots. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276: 4155–4162. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1397CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meagher, R 2019 Is boredom an animal welfare concern? Animal Welfare 28: 21–32. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.28.1.021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehan, C, Millam, J and Mench, J 2003 Foraging opportunity and increased physical complexity both prevent and reduce psychogenic feather picking by young Amazon parrots. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 80: 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00192-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellor, E, Brilot, B and Collins, S 2018 Abnormal repetitive behaviours in captive birds: a Tinbergian review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 198: 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.09.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nieder, A, Wagener, L and Rinnert, P 2020 A neural correlate of sensory consciousness in a corvid bird. Science 369: 1626–1629. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb1447CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Hara, M and Auersperg, A 2017 Object play in parrots and corvids. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 16: 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olkowicz, S, Kocourek, M, Lucan, R, Portes, M, Fitch, W, Herculano-Houzel, S and Nemec, P 2016 Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain. PNAS 113: 7255–7260. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517131113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orosz, S 2014 Special senses. Phoenix Landing Wellness Retreat Conference. 4 May 2014, University of North Carolina, Asheville Campus, Phoenix Landing, USAGoogle Scholar
Orosz, S 2016 Anatomy and physiology of the endocrine system: protein hormones. In: Speer, BL (ed) Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery pp 378–384. Elsevier: Missouri, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-4671-2.00019-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul-Murphy, J 2016 Foundations in avian welfare. In: Speer, BL (ed) Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery pp 669–676. Elsevier: Missouri, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-4671-2.00031-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penckofer, S, Kouba, J, Byrn, M and Ferrans, C 2010 Vitamin D and depression: Where is all the sunshine? Issues of Mental Health in Nursing 31: 385–393. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840903437657CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepperberg, I 1999 The Alex Studies pp 197–208. First Harvard University Press: Massachusetts, USAGoogle Scholar
Pepperberg, I 2006 Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) numerical abilities: Addition and further experiments on a zero-like concept. Journal of Comparative Psychology 120: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.120.1.1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepperberg, I 2007 Grey parrots do not always ‘parrot’: the roles of imitation and phonological awareness in the creation of new labels from existing vocalizations. Language Sciences 29: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2005.12.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pepperberg, I 2009 Alex & Me. Harper: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Picard, A, Mundry, R, Auersperg, A, Boving, E, Palmyre, B, Bugnyar, T, Dufour, V, Emery, N, Federspiel, I, Gajdon, G, Guery, J, Hegedic, M, Horn, L, Kavanagh, E, Lambert, M, Massen, J, Rodrigues, M, Schiestl, M, Schwing, R, Szabo, B, Taylor, A, van Horik, J, von Bayern, A, Seed, A and Slocombe, K 2019 Why preen others? Predictors of allopreening in parrots and corvids and comparisons to grooming in great apes. Ethology: International Journal of Behavioural Biology 126: 207–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12999Google Scholar
Robbins, L and Margulis, S 2016 Music for the birds: Effects of auditory enrichment on captive bird species. Zoo Biology 5: 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, L 1996 Brain lateralization and cognitive capacity. Animals 11(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11071996Google Scholar
Schachner, A, Brady, T, Pepperberg, I and Hauser, M 2009 Spontaneous motor entrainment to music in multiple vocal mimicking species. Current Biology 19: 831–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.061CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuck-Paim, C, Alonso, W and Ottoni, E 2008 Cognition in an ever-changing world: Climatic variability is associated with brain size in neotropical parrots. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution 71: 200–215. https://doi.org/10.1159/000119710CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwing, R, Nelson, X, Wein, A and Parsons, S 2017 Positive emotional contagion in a New Zealand parrot. Current Biology 27: 213–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siebert, C 2016 What does a parrot know about PTSD? In: Yanagihara, H (ed) The New York Times Magazine p 40. New York Times: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Smith, G, Greene, D, Hartsfield, L and Pepperberg, I 2021 Initial evidence for eliciting contrafreeloading in grey parrots (Psittacus eritha-cus) via the opportunity for playful foraging. Journal of Comparative Psychology 135: 516–533. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000295CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, P and Harris, L 1996 Lexicon size and its relation to foot preference in the African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Neuropsychologia 35: 919–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00010-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanford, M 2006 Effects of UVB radiation on calcium metabo-lism in psittacine birds. The Veterinary Record 159: 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.159.8.236CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamungang, S, Onabid, M, Awa, T and Balinga, V 2016 Habitat preferences of the grey parrot in heterogeneous vegetation landscapes and their conservation implications. International Journal of Biodiversity 2016: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7287563CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarr, B, Rabinowitz, J, Ali Imtiaz, M and DeVoogd, T 2009 Captivity reduces hippocampal volume but not survival of new cells in a food-storing bird. Developmental Neurobiology 69: 972–981. https://doi.org/10.1002/dneu.20736CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tweti, M 2008 Of Parrots and People: The Sometimes Funny, Always Fascinating, and Often Catastrophic Collision of Two Intelligent Species. Viking Penguin: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 2020 Animal Welfare Act Standards for Birds Virtual Public Meeting Information. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalwel-fare/aw-news/bird-listening-sessionsGoogle Scholar
Van Zeeland, Y 2020 Medication for behavior modification. Phoenix Landing Wellness Retreat Conference. 17 May 2020, Phoenix Landing, USAGoogle Scholar
Van Zeeland, Y, Friedman, S and Bergman, L 2016 Behavior. In: Speer, BL (ed) Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery pp 177–251. Elsevier: Missouri, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-4671-2.00014-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, I, Hoppitt, W and Grant, R 2017 The effect of auditory enrichment, rearing method and social environment on the behavior of zoo-housed psittacines (Aves: Psittaciformes); implications for welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 186: 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.10.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar