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The Origins of the Tsarist Epoch of Censorship Terror

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2017

Daniel Balmuth
Daniel Balmuth*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Skidmore College
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Extract

In February, 1848, just after news of the revolution in Paris reached St. Petersburg, Emperor Nicholas I was advised of the growth of a subversive periodical literature within Russia. His informants implied that the Chief Administration of Censorship and the Minister of Education, Count Sergej Uvarov, the supreme authorities in the censorship, had been lacking in vigilance or ability. The charges were grave because, if true, they revealed a fundamental threat to the security of the police regime that Nicholas had maintained since the beginning of his reign in 1825. The threat was not one of out-and-out sedition; what was at issue was the suggestion by his informants that periodical literature had evaded the close supervision of the censorship and assumed the role of an independent observer of contemporary Russia. Nicholas realized the gravity of the charges and immediately moved to appoint a special investigating group known as the Menshikov Committee.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Slavic and East European Review , Volume 19 , Issue 4 , December 1960 , pp. 497 - 520
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies 1960

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References

1 Reports of Minister and Vice-Minister of Education, Dec. 4, 1832, in SbornikPostanovlenij po Ministerstvu Narodnago Prosveshchenija (15 vols., St. Petersburg, 1875-1902), II, Pt. I, 502-29 esp. pp. 511-12, 513-17; Rozhdestvenskij, S. V., Istoricheskij obzor dejatel'nosti Ministerstva Narodnago Prosveshchenija, 1802-1902 (St. Petersburg, 1902), pp. 270–71, 534.Google Scholar

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4 Education during Uvarov's ministry is treated in Rozhdestvenskij, pp. 243-45, 247, 253-58, 265-66, 271-74, 291. For a survey of the censorship during the same years see Lemke, M. K., Nikolaevskie zhandarmy i literatura 1826-1855 gg. (St. Petersburg, 1908)Google Scholar and [V. V. Stasov], “Censura v carstvovanie imperatora Nikolaja I,” Russkaja Starina (CVII, July, August, September, 1901), pp. 151-67, 395-404, 643-68; (CXIII, February, March, 1903), pp. 305-28, 571-91; (CXIV, April, May, June, 1903), pp. 163-82, 379-96, 643-71.

5 Nikitenko, A. V., Moja Povest’ o samom sebe i o torn “chemu svidetel’ v zhizni byl.“ Zapiski i Dnevnik, 1804-1877 gg. (2d ed. corrected and supplemented, edited by Lemke, M. K., 2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1904)Google Scholar, I, 386 (Entry, May 8, 1845); Memorandum of Uvarov, “O Cenzure” of March, 1848, from Third Section Archives cited in Nifontov, A. S., 1848 god v Rossii (Moscow-Leningrad, 1931), p. 184.Google Scholar For a survey of journalism in the 1830's and 1840's, see Dement'ev, A. G., Ocherki po istorii russkoj zhurnalistiki, 1840-1850 gg. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1951), pp. 7-89, 111-77Google Scholar and Ocherki po istorii russkoj zhurnalistikii kritiki (Publication of Filologicheskij Institut, Leningradskij Gosudarstvennyj Universitet Imeni A. A. Zhdanova, Leningrad, 1950), I.

6 Report of Uvarov, May 8, 1847, in Bagalij, D., “Novi dzherela pro Kirilo-Metodijvs'ke bratztvo,” Nashe Minule (No. 2, 1918), pp. 171–77Google Scholar. On May 6, 1847, Uvarov instructed censors to watch the press carefully for references to political questions and expressions of “unrestrained” national or provincial patriotism. See [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXIV, June, 1903), p. 655 and Sbornik postanovlenij i rasporjazhenij po cenzure s 1720 po 1862god (St. Petersburg, 1862), p. 240. This last reference will be abbreviated in this paper as SPRT.

7 Report of Orlov, May 26, 1847, in Bagalij, pp. 178-79; Order of June 2, 1847, quoted from Censorship Archives in Ivashchenko, A., “Carskaja cenzura i sochinenija T. G. Shevchenko,” Zapiski otdela rukopisej. Vsesojuznaja biblioteka imeni V. I. Lenina (V, 1939), pp. 25-26 Google Scholar; Secret Bulletin containing sense of Orlov's report reprinted from Bor'baKlassov (Nos. 1-2, 1924), pp. 253-55 in Dmitriev, S. S. and Nechkina, M. V. (ed.), Khrestomatija po istorii SSSR (3d ed., Moscow, 1953), II, 72–22;Google Scholar [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXV, September, 1903), pp. 664-66.

8 Order of June 2, 1847, from Censorship Archives quoted in Ivashchenko, pp. 25-26; Ordinances of June 5, 1847, in SPRT, p. 241; Censorship Archives quoted in Baron Driesen, N. V., Dramaticheskaja cenzura dvukh epokh 1825-1881 (Petrograd, 1917), p. 40;Google Scholar [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXIV, June, 1903), pp. 655-56.

9 Dement'ev, pp. 167-72. In this paper, the English titles of the following journals will be used: National Notes, Otechestvennye Zapiski; Northern Bee, Severnaja Pchela; TheContemporary, Sovremennik; The Muscovite, Moskvitjanin; Literary Gazette, LiteraturnajaGazeta; News of the St. Petersburg City Police, Vedomosti s-Peterburgskoj gorodskojpolicii.

10 Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, pp. 327-30, 339 and in quoted report of Orlov, p. 176; Nikitenko, I, 375 (Entry, Jan. 17, 1848) .

11 Ibid., I, 375-76 (Entries, Jan. 17, 22, 1848); “Dnevnik Ivana Mikhailovicha Snegireva,” Russkij Arhhiv (III, No. 9, 1903), p. 90 (Entry, Feb. 12, 1848).

12 Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Nifontov, 1848 god…, p. 181; Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, p. 174; V. Evgen'ev-Maksimov, “Sovrernennik” v 40-50 gg. ot Belinskogo do Chernyshevskogo (Leningrad, 1934), p. 235; Anonymous, undated letter as printed in Semevskij, V., “Materialy po istorii cenzury v Rossii,” Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913), pp. 227–28Google Scholar. Nifontov suggests that Bulgarin was the author of the attack on Uvarov but this is questionable since Bulgarin did not write anonymous letters.

13 Letter of Popov, Feb. 20, 1848, in “Priglashenija v Ill-e Otdelenie V. G. Belinskago v 1848 g.,” Russkaja Starina (XXXVI, November, 1882), pp. 434–35; Lemke, Nikolaevskiezhandarmy …, p. 190; see also Evgen'ev-Maksimov, p. 240 for correction to Lemke's explanation of the origin of this invitation.

14 Nifontov, A. S., Rossija v 1848 godu (Moscow, 1949), p. 45.Google Scholar

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16 Report of Orlov, Feb. 23, 1848; from Third Section Archives quoted in Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy .. ., pp. 175–77; Evgen'ev-Maksimov, p. 235; Nifontov, Rossija …, p. 41; S. Monas, “Shishkov, Bulgarin and the Russian Censorship,” Russian Thought andPolitics (Vol. IV of Harvard Slavic Studies, Cambridge, 1957), pp. 145-46.

17 Memorandum of Korff, Feb. 24, 1848 (sicl) as printed in Semevskij, Golos Minuvshago (No. 3, 1913), pp. 219-21; “Iz zapisok bar. M. A. Korfa,” Russkaja Starina (CI, March, 1900), pp. 571–72; Veselovskij, K. S., “Otgoloski staroj pamjati,” Russkaja Starina (C, October, 1899), p. 10;Google Scholar Nikitenko, I, 377 (Entry, Apr. 25, 1848) ; “Iz rasskazov G. V. Grubeva,” Russkij Arkhiv (III, No. 11, 1898), p. 434; V. V. Stasov, “Rumjancovskij Muzej. Istorija ego perevoda iz Peterburga v Moskvu v 1860-1861 gg.,” Russkaja Starina (XLVII, January, 1883), p. 88; Russkij Biograficheskij Slovar’ (25 vols., St. Petersburg, 1896 1918), IX (K), pp. 282–92.

18 Nikitenko, I, 377 (Entry, Apr. 25, 1848) ; Veselovskij, Russkaja Starina (C, October, 1899), pp. 11-13; Solov'ev, S. M., “Moj zapiski dlja detej moikh, a esli mozhno, i dlja drugikh,” Vestnik Evropy (II, March, 1907), pp. 87-89;Google Scholar Annenkov, P. V., “Dve zimy v provincii i v derevne (1849-1851) . Iz vospominanij,” ed. by Lerner, N., Byloe (No. 18, 1922) , p. 18;Google Scholar Barsukov, N., Zhizn’ i trudy M. P. Pogodina (23 vols, St. Petersburg, 1888- 1910), IX, 241–42, 280.Google Scholar

19 Unpublished diary of Menshikov cited and quoted in N. K. Shil'der, ImperatorNikola] Pervyj. Ego Zhizn’ i Carstvovanie (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903), II, 632-33; “Iz rasskazov G. V. Grubeva,” Russkij Arkhiv (III, No. 11, 1898), p. 434.

20 “Iz zapisok bar. M. A. Korfa,” Russkaja Starina (CI, March, 1900), p. 572.

21 Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Makashin, S., Saltykov-Shchedrin. Biografija (Moscow, 1949) , I, 234–35;Google Scholar [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXV, July, 1903), pp. 137-38; Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, p. 177.

22 Third Section Archives quoted in Nifontov, 1848 god ,.., p. 180. The title of the folio is “About the establishment of the committee for consideration of The Contemporary,National Notes, and other Russian journals.“

23 Shil'der, II, 634; Usov, P. S., “Iz moikh vospominanij,” Istoricheskij Vestnik (VIII, May, 1882) , pp. 338–39;Google Scholar Novyj Enciklopedicheskij Slovar', XXVI, 291-92.

24 Solov'ev, Vestnik Evropy (II, April, 1907), p. 460; Russkij Biograficheskij Slovar', XIX (S), pp. 484–85.

25 lbid., Ill (B), pp. 545–47.

26 Ibid., VI (D), pp. 159–60: Novyj Enciklopedicheskij Slovar', XV, 737–38; Makashin, I, 239; “Iz zapisok bar. M. A. Korfa,” Russkaja Starina (CI, March, 1900), p. 572.

27 Ibid., p. 572; L. F. Panteleev, “L. V. Dubel't. Vera bez dobrykh del mjortvaja veshch,“ Golos Minuvshago (No. 3, 1913), pp. 133, 134, 150, 151–53, 154; E. I. Dubel't, “L. V. Dubel't. Biograficheskij ocherki i ego pis'ma (k zhene),” Russkaja Starina (LX, November, 1888), p. 501; Censorship Archives quoted and cited in Driesen, Dramaticheskajacenzura …, p. 6; Report of Dubel't, April 3, 1839, quoted in Baron Driesen, N. V., “Istorija dramaticheskoj cenzury pri Imp. Nikolae I,” Russkoe Bogatstvo (No. 6, 1914), pp. 38-39 Google Scholar; Semevskij, V. I. and Belozerskij, N. A., “Avtobiografij Nikolaja Ivanovicha Kostomarova,” Russkaja MysV, (No. 5, 1885), p. 217 Google Scholar; Jastrzhembskij, I. F., “Memuar Petrashevca,” Minuvshie Gody (No. 1, 1908), p. 33 Google Scholar; Karatygin, I. P., “Benkendorf i Dubel't,” Istoricheskij Vestnik (XXX, October, 1887), p. 174.Google Scholar

28 Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Nifontov, 1848 god…, p. 188; unpublished diary of Menshikov quoted in Shil'der, II, 634. In the same entry, Menshikov noted that he visited Uvarov to inform him of the ruling that all articles be signed and to convince Uvarov that he (Menshikov) was “not an inquisitor.“

29 Letter of Bulgarin to Count Orlov, Mar. 13, 1848, and Dubbelt's notation as printed in Semevskij, Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913), pp. 207-08; Nifontov, 1848 god … , p. 184 note 1; [Stasov], Rwskaja Starina (CXV, July, 1903), p. 138; Instruction of March 8, 22, 23, 1848 in SPRT, p. 219; Letters of March 12, 29, 1848, in Gosudarstvennyj Istoricheskij Muzej. Moscow. Muzej Shchukina, P. I., Shchukinskij Sbornik (10 vols., Moscow, 1902- 1912), II, 328–29.Google Scholar The sequence of orders duplicated a succession of orders on the same subject in 1831.

30 Third Section Archives quoted in Nifontov, 1848 god ..., pp. 183-84; Second Section Archives quoted in Majkov, P. M., Vtoroe otdelenie sobstvennoj Ego Imperatorskago Velichestva Kanceljarii. 1826-1882(St. Petersburg, 1906)Google Scholar, Supplement XI, p. 19.

31 Instruction of March 12, 1848 in SPRT, pp. 243–44; Rozhdestvenskij, pp. 336-37; Censorship Archives quoted and cited in Lemke, M. K., Ocherki po istorii russkoj cenzury i zhurnalistiki XIX stoletija (St. Petersburg, 1904) , p. 197;Google Scholar “Dnevnik Ivana Mikhailovicha Snegireva,” Russkij Arkhiv (III, No. 9, 1903), p. 91. The reprimand was read to the Moscow censorship committee on March 16.

32 Instructions of March 27, 1848, in SPRT, pp. 219, 245; Usov, Istoricheskij Vestnik (XII, May, 1883) , pp. 357-58; [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXV, July, 1903), pp. 138–39; Letter of Moscow curator Golokhvastov to Moscow censorship committee, March 31, 1848 in Shchukinskij Sbornik, II, 330.

33 Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Nifontov, 1848 god …, pp. 184-85.

34 Ibid., p. 184, note 1; pp. 87–88; Letter of Bulgarin, March 6, 1848, quoted from Third Section Archives in Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, p. 339, and printed in Semevski, Golos Minuvshago (No. 3, 1913) , pp. 222–28; anonymous letter printed in Semevskij, Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913), pp. 208-12; see also two other anonymous letters in Semevskij's article which may have been sent to the Menshikov Committee, No. 3, 1913, pp. 228–29, and No. 4, 1913, pp. 226-27; Evgen'ev-Maksimov, V., Ocherki po istorii socialisticheskoj zhurnalistiki v Rossii XIX veka (Moscow-Leningrad, 1927) , pp. 48–49.Google Scholar

35 The Committee's final report is printed in Semevskij, Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913) , pp. 212-19; Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Nifontov, 1848 god ..., pp. 187–88.

36 Letter of Menshikov to Uvarov, April 3, 1848, from Censorship Archives quoted in Lemke, Ocherki…, pp. 199-200; Ordinance of April 6, 1848, in SPRT, p. 246; Letter of Moscow curator Golokhvastov to Moscow censorship committee, April 18, 1848, in Shchukinski Sbornik, II, 331.

37 Third Section Archives quoted in Nifontov, 1848 god …, pp. 188-89; Semevskij, , Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913) , pp. 219–20Google Scholar; Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, p. 191. Orlov added to the reprimand the words “and will be dealt with as with state criminals.“

38 Letter of Uvarov and answer of chairman of St. Petersburg censorship committee quoted and cited in Barsukov, Zhizn’ i trudy …, IX, 289-90.

39 Letter of Nikitenko to Orlov, April 9, 1848 as printed in Semevskij, , Golos Minuvshago (No. 4, 1913), pp. 220–22Google Scholar; Nifontov, 1848 god …, p. 189; Evgen'ev-Maksimov. “Sovremennik” …, pp. 246-47; Russkij Biograficheskij Slovar', XI (N), p. 300. It will be recalled that the Menshikov Committee had forbidden censors to edit or participate in journals and the censors were so instructed on April 6, 1848.

40 Report of Popov, April 11, 1848 from Third Section Archives quoted in Lemke, Nikolaevskie zhandarmy …, pp. 191-92 and also pp. 193-96; [Stasov], Russkaja Starina (CXV, July, 1903) , p. 144.

41 Third Section Archives quoted and cited in Makashin, I, 239-47; and also in Nifontov, 184S god ..., pp. 189-90 and Rossija …, pp. 235-36; Veselovskij, Russkaja Starina (C, October, 1899), pp. 14-15; see also for additional material V. Evgen'ev-Maksimov, N. Vyvodcev, and I. Jampol'skij, “Cenzurnye materialy o Shchedrine,” LiteraturnoeNasledstvo (XIII-XIV, 1934) , p. 116; M. Panchenko, “K istorii ssylki Saltykova,” LiteraturnoeNasledstvo (XIII-XIV, 1934), pp. 489-94.

42 Bowman, H., Vissarion Belinski, 1811-1848, A Study in the Origins of Social Criticism in Russia (Cambridge, 1954) , p. 142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

43 Quoted from memoirs of Mme. Smirnova-Rossetti in de Grunwald, C., Tsar Nicholas I (trans, by Patmore, B., New York, 1955) , p. 243.Google Scholar

44 Opinion of Dubbelt, December 23, 1850, in “Staraja zapisnaja knizhka” dated October 14, 1855, in Prince Vjazemskij, P. A., Polnoe sobranie sochineij knjazja P. A. Vjazemskago (12 vols., St. Petersburg, 1878-1896), IX, 48.Google Scholar

45 However, as the actions of the terrorized Kraevskij indicate, threats, scoldings, and visits by the Gendarmerie could and did extract expressions of enthusiastic loyalty from some writers. Polievktov states that Nicholas’ government desired to force on science the role of justifying and serving the autocratic state. See Polievktov, pp. 227–28.