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The Order of St. John in International Law: A Forerunner of the Red Cross

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 March 2017

Arthur C. Bretcha-Vatjthier  and
Michael Potulicki
Michael Potulicki
Affiliation:
University of Geneva (Strasbourg)
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Extract

The Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem (of Malta)–a charitable organization dating back to about a thousand years ago, and still in existence –received Papal recognition as an autonomous organization in 1113, having previously been admitted as such by the King of Jerusalem. Shortly afterwards, the Order was granted its first supranational statute. From that viewpoint the institution, the principal aim of which was, and still continues to be, to assist the sick and the poor on an international basis, can be regarded as the oldest–after the Holy See— international organization recorded in history. Does not the XIVth-century chronicle of the Masters of the Order refer to "our lords, the sick," their motto for centuries having been "Infirmes et infirmas benigne reci, pere"? In this respect the Order of St. John can be regarded as the forerunner of the Bed Cross with the object of giving assistance through charity to human beings; from the outset the members of the Order founded innumerable institutions and hospitals, including those in the field, and, during military campaigns in more recent times, sanitary trains and hospital ships.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 48 , Issue 4 , October 1954 , pp. 554 - 563
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1954

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References

1 For bibliography, see Bascapè, C., L’Ordine Sovrano di Malta (Milan, Ceschina, 1940)Google Scholar; de Pierredon, Th. Michel, L’Ordre Souverain et Militaire des Hospitaliers de St. Jean de Jérusalem (Paris, 1925)Google Scholar; King, E. J., The Knights Hospitallers in the Holy Land (London, 1931)Google Scholar; von Beumont, A., “Die letsten Zeiten des Johanniterordens,” in Beiträge …, Vol. IV (Berlin, 1855)Google Scholar; de Hellwald, F., Bibliographie méthodique de l’Ordre souverain de St. Jean de Jérusalem (Borne, 1885)Google Scholar (with supplements and continuations).

2 See also a survey in Prokopowski, B., Ordre Souverain Militaire et Hiérosolymitain, de Matte (Vatican, Ecclesia, 1950)Google Scholar.

3 The Priory of England was suppressed by Queen Elizabeth I and in 1782, a shortlived English-Bavarian Langue was established. In turn the King of Prussia founded a separate, Protestant, Order of St. John (Johanniterorden) in Brandenburg in 1812.

4 H. Lauterpacht, Annual Digest and Beports of Public International Law Cases, 1935–1937, pp. 2–7. See also ibid., 1931–1932, pp. 88–89, for an earlier decision.

5 See translation by M. Pilotti and A. C. Breycha-Vauthier in Oesterr. Zeitschrift für öffentliohes Recht (1951), pp. 392–394.

6 This Journal, Vol. 43 (1949), p. 537.

7 For a more complete survey of opinions see A. C. Breycha-Vauthier, “Der Malteser-Orden im Völkerrecht,” Oesterr. Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht (1950), pp. 401–413.

8 Biscottini, G., “Sulla condizione giuridica dell’Ordine di Malta,” Archivio storico di Malta (Rome), Vol. X (1938–1939), pp. 1–16 Google Scholar.

9 Cansacchi, G., “Il diritto di legazione attivo e passivo dell’Ordine di Malta,” Diritto Internazionale, 1940 (Milan, 1941), pp. 58–81 Google Scholar.

10 C. A. Pasini-Costadoat, “La personalidad international de la Soberana Militar Orden de Malta,” in La Ley (Buenos Aires), April 11, 1948, p. 3.

11 Legations of the Order are listed in the official registers, e.g., of the Vatican (Annuario Pontifico) or of Spain (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Representantes Diplomàticos extranjeros). Other diplomatic representations exist, e.g., in the Argentine (see Bishop, W. W. Jr., International Law (New York, 1953), p. 173 Google Scholar), in Brazil and Portugal; and they also appeared in the official registers in Austria (Österreichischer Amtskalender, 1937, p. 127) and in Hungary (Magyarorszàg Tisrti cim ès Névtára, 1944, p. 45). For a complete list see Rivista del Ordine di Malta, October-December, 1951.

12 Cansacchi, loc. cit.

13 Actes de la Conférence diplomatique convoquée par le Conseil Fédéral suisse pour révision de la Convention pour l’amélioration du sort des blessés et malades dans les armées, Genève, 1929, pp. 62–64, 133, 367–378, 414–415, 606.

14 See also the comments by Werner, A. E., La Croix-Souge et les conventions de Genève (Geneva, 1943), pp. 55–56 Google Scholar; and M. Peruzzi, “Il S. M. Ordine de Malta e le convenzioni internazionali per la protezione dei feriti e dei malati in guerra,” Rivista del Ordine di Malta, October-November, 1942, pp. 10–14; and de la Chenaye, G., La personalitá di diritto vnternazionale del S. M. Ordine di Malta eon particolare riguardo alle sue convenzioni per la protezione dei feriti e dei malati in guerra (Doctoral thesis, University of Turin, 1943)Google Scholar.

The Order was not represented at the 1949 Conference. Its point of view having been presented by a national delegation and not by the delegate of the Holy See, gave rise to a rather confused debate which did not help to clarify the Order’s international position. (Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949, Vol. II A, pp. 20, 21, 37, 78, Vol. II B, pp. 492–495.)

15 Relief work is at present carried out by Grand Priories (Austria, 3 Italian Grand Priories) and the Associations (listed according to their constitutions) of Rhineland-Westphalia, Silesia, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Netherlands, Poland, Hungary, United States of America, Belgium, Ireland and the delegations in Colombia and the Philippines; to those is added a supra-national Missionary Association.

16 Though this Order is no longer international, Oppenheim-Lauterpacht (International Law (London, 1948), Vol. I, p. 227), dealing with the personality of the Order in international law, stated that “this seems only to apply to the Catholic branch of the Order, under the Grand Master in Rome.” The common origins, however, are upheld by both organizations (see also Kinnaird, G., “The Order of St. John of Jerusalem,” in Quarterly Review (London), 1946, pp. 444–457 Google Scholar, and St. George Saunders, H., The Red Cross and the White (London, 1949)Google Scholar).

17 E.g., Verdross, A. (Völherrecht (Vienna, 1950), p. 494 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; also pp. 1, 3, 98), whose viewpoint is opposed by H. C. de Zeininger, “Quelques considérations sur la souverameté de l’Ordre de St.-Jean,” in Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique suisse (1951), pp. 215–222. On the other hand, the instructions to the Chairman of the American Delegation to the Geneva, 1929, Conference ( Hackworth, , Digest of International Law (Washington, 1940), Vol. I, p. 50 Google Scholar) clearly oppose a plenipotentiary status for both organizations.

18 League of Nations publications Ser. A.36.1927. VIII, p. 50.

19 League of Nations publications Ser. 1936. XII.B.9, p. 2.

20 World Health Organization, Fifth Assembly, Sovereign and Military Order of Malta (A.5/13). The introduction to this document shows up the rather puzzling problems which the demand of an organization not falling within the standard categories (governmental or non-governmental, national or international organization) created, while the annexed summary of information on the Order itself does not seem to clarify the position either.

21 Statute, 1936 (rev.), Art. 29 (G. Bascapè, op. cit., p. 49).

22 Tempo, Jan. 26, March 6, June 5, 1952; Giornale d’Italia, Jan. 15, 1952; Le Monde, Jan. 3, Feb. 11, 1952; Österreichische Furche, March 29, 1952.

23 “Lettera circolare,” 1952, 69 pp.

24 Extract translated from text published in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, Nov. 30, 1953, pp. 765–767. On this judgment, see Zarb, S. M. in Scientia (Malta), 1954, pp. 69–88 Google Scholar.

25 E. J. King, op. cit., p. 1.

26 In his memorandum of June 24, 1952 (Animadversiones e voto dett’Ecc.-mo Promotore di giustizia, 34 pp.), the special attorney of the Church forecasts that a solution which would recognize a dependency of the Order from the Holy See affects only its internal organization, leaving undisturbed the position of the Order in its relations with the various states (p. 29).

27 H. C. de Zeininger, “Saint-Jean ou Malte?” in Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique suisse, 1947, pp. 57–64.