Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T00:55:23.271Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Farming and Foraging at the Crossroads: The Consequences of Cherokee and European Interaction Through the Late Eighteenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Amber M. VanDerwarker ,
Jon B. Marcoux  and
Kandace D. Hollenbach
Amber M. VanDerwarker
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-3210 (vanderwarker@anth.ucsb.edu)
Jon B. Marcoux
Affiliation:
Cultural and Historical Preservation Program,Salve Regina University, 100 Ochre Point Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island 02840-4192 (jon.marcoux@salve.edu)
Kandace D. Hollenbach
Affiliation:
Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996 (kdh@utk.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The material remains of daily subsistence within Cherokee communities reflect strategies that households enacted while adapting to disruptions associated with European colonialism. Plant subsistence remains dating from the late Pre-Contact period through the end of the Revolutionary War (A.D. 1300–1783) reveal how Cherokee food producers! collectors fed their families as they navigated an increasingly uncertain landscape. Framing our analysis in terms of risk mitigation and future-discounting concepts from human behavioral ecology, we argue that Cherokee households responded to increasing risk and uncertainty by shifting towards subsistence strategies that had more immediate rewards. Although Cherokee plant subsistence remains exhibit continuity in how people farmed and foraged, our study shows that households made strategic decisions to alter their food production and collection with respect to looming uncertainty. Archaeobotanical analysis from multiple sites spanning the Colonial period (ca. A.D. 1670–1783) reveal a stepwise process of declining maize production, increased foraging, and overall diversification of the plant diet. This case underscores the relevance of concepts from human behavioral ecology to complex colonial situations by demonstrating that strategies of risk prevention and mitigation have applicability beyond ecological factors.

Resumen

Resumen

Este documento estudia los restos materiales de la subsistencia cotidiana de las comunidades Cherokee para identificar las estrategias que los hogares promulgada mientras se adaptan a los interrupciones asociadas con el colonialismo europeo. Nuestro análisis se orienta sobre la subsistencia de plantas que datan desde los últimos años antes de contacto con los españoles a través del período final de la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos (d.C. 1300–1783). Consideramos cómo los Cherokee productores de alimentación/colectores, alimentaron a sus familias, mientras navegan un paisaje cada vez más incierto, enmarcando el análisis en términos de mitigación de riesgos y conceptos descontar el futuro de la ecología del comportamiento humano. Sostenemos que las familias Cherokee respondieron a creciendo riesgo y incertidumbre con un cambio de estrategias de subsistencia por una que tendrá recompensas más inmediatas. Mientras que la subsistencia de plantas Cherokee exhibe continuidad temporal claro en que la gente continuó cultivando y forrajeando por plantas, nuestro estudio muestra que las familias tomaron decisiones estratégicas para alterar la producción de alimentos y la recolección con respecto a la inminente incertidumbre. Análisis arqueobotánico de varios sitios que abarca el período colonial (ca. 1670–1783) revelan un proceso gradual de disminución de la producción de maíz, el aumento de forraje, y la diversificación de plantas en la dieta. Finalmente, este caso también pone de manifiesto la relevancia de los conceptos de ecología del comportamiento humano a la compleja situación del colonialismo mediante la demostración de que las estrategias de prevención y mitigación de riesgos tienen una aplicabilidad fuera de los factores ambientales.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 78 , Issue 1 , January 2013 , pp. 68 - 88
Copyright
Copyright © 2013 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adair, James 1986[1775] A History of the North American Indians. Promontory Press, New York.Google Scholar
Baden, William W. 1983 Tomotley: An Eighteenth Century Cherokee Village. Report of Investigations No. 36. Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Baksh, M., and Johnson, A. 1990 Insurance Policies among the Machiguenga: An Ethnographic Analysis of Risk Management in a non-Western Society. In Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies, ed. by Elizabeth Cashdan, pp. 193–227. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Barnwell, John 1719 Census of Indians of South Carolina and Nearby, 1715. Records in the British Public Record Office Relating to South Carolina, 1663–1717, Vol.7, pp. 233–239. Microfilm, Charleston County Public Library, Charleston.Google Scholar
Bauxar, Joseph J. 1957a Yuchi Ethnoarchaeology, Part I: Some Yuchi Identifications Reconsidered. Ethnohistory 4(3):279–301.Google Scholar
Bauxar, Joseph J. 1957b Yuchi Ethnoarchaeology: Parts II-V. Ethnohistory 4:369–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Robin A. Jr. 2009 Catawba Coalescence and the Shattering of the Carolina Piedmont, 1540–1675. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 115–141. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boudreaux, Edmond A. 2007 The Archaeology of Town Creek. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bowne, Eric E. 2005 The Westo Indians: Slave Traders of the Early Colonial South. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bowne, Eric E. 2006 “A Bold and Warlike People”: The Basis of Westo Power. In Light on the Path: The Anthropology and History of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Robbie Ethridge, pp. 123–132. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bowne, Eric E. 2009 “Caryinge awaye their Come and Children”: The Effects of Westo Slave Raids on the Indians of the Lower South. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 104–114. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David L. 1987 Agro-pastoral Risk Management in the Central Andes. Research in Economic Anthropology 8:171–200.Google Scholar
Cable, John, O’Steen, Lisa, Raymer, Leslie E., Loubser, Johannes H. N., Leigh, David S., Joseph, J. W.. Beth Reed, Mary, Danielsson-Murphy, Lotta, McEvoy, Undine, Murphy, Thaddeus, Bonhage-Freund, Mary Theresa, and Wall-smith, Deborah 1997 A Picture Unsurpassed: Prehistoric and Historic Indian Settlement and Landscape, Brasstown Valley, Towns County, Georgia. Report on File at New South Associates, Stone Mountain, Georgia.Google Scholar
Cancian, Frank 1980 Risk and Uncertainty in Agricultural Decision Making. In Agricultural Decision Making: Anthropological Contributions to Rural Development, ed. by Peggy Bartlett, pp. 161–176. Academic Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, Jefferson, and Brewer Shea, Andrea 1981 The Archaeobotanical Record: Early Archaic Period to Contact in the Lower Little Tennessee River Valley. Tennessee Anthropologist 6(1):61–84.Google Scholar
Chicken, George 1916[1725] Journal of the Commissioner for Indian Affairs on his Journey to the Cherokees and his Proceedings There. In Travels in the American Colonies, edited by Newton D. Mereness, pp. 95–174. MacMillan Company, New York.Google Scholar
Corkran, David H. 1967 The Creek Frontier, 1540–1783. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Cowan, C. Wesley, Edwin Jackson, H., Moore, Katherine, Nickelhoff, A., and Smart, T. 1981 The Cloudspitter Rockshelter, Menifee County, Kentucky: A Preliminary Report. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Bulletin 24:60–75.Google Scholar
Crane, Verner W. 1916 The Tennessee River as the Road to Carolina: The Beginnings of Exploration and Trade. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3(1):3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crane, Verner W. 2004 The Southern Frontier, 1670–1732. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
de Garine, I., and Koppert, G. 1988 Coping with Seasonal Fluctuations in Food Supply among Savanna Populations: The Massa and Mussey of Chad and Camaroon. In Coping with Uncertainty in Food Supply, edited by I. de Garine and G. A. Harrison, pp. 210–259. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Dickens, Roy S. Jr. 1976 Cherokee Prehistory: The Pisgah Phase in the Appalachian Summit Region. The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Dickens, Roy S. Jr. 1979 The Origins and Development of Cherokee Culture. In The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, edited by Duane H. King, pp. 3–32. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2006 Creating the Shatterzone: Indian Slave Traders and the Collapse of the Southeastern Chiefdoms. In Light on the Path: The Anthropology and History of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Robbie Ethridge, pp. 207–218. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2009 Introduction: Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 1–62. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2010 From Chicaza to Chickasaw: The European Invasion and the Transformation of the Mississippian World, 1540–1715. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie, and Shuck-Hall, Sheri M. (editors) 2009 Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitch, Tobias 1916[1725] Journey to the Creeks. In Travels in the American Colonies, edited by Newton D. Mereness, pp. 175–214. MacMillan Company, New York.Google Scholar
Fitts, Mary Elizabeth, and Heath, Charles L. 2009 “Indians Refusing to Carry Burdens”: Understanding the Success of Catawba Political, Military, and Settlement Strategies in Colonial Carolina. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 142–162. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., and O’Donoghue, T. 2002 Time Discounting and Time Preference: A Critical Review. Journal of Developmental Economics 40:351–401.Google Scholar
Gallay, Alan 2002 The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Galloway, Patricia K. 1995 Choctaw Genesis, 1500–1700. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Galloway, Patricia K. 2002 Colonial Period Transformations in the Mississippi Valley: Disintegration, Alliance, Confederation, Playoff. In The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Charles Hudson, pp.225–248. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.Google Scholar
Goland, Carol 1991 The Ecological Context of Hunter-Gatherer Storage: Environmental Predictability and Environmental Risk. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology 10:107–125.Google Scholar
Goodwin, Gary C. 1977 Cherokees in Transition: A Study of Changing Culture and Environment Prior to 1775. University of Chicago, Department of Geography Research Paper 181, Chicago.Google Scholar
Green, L., and Myerson, J. 1996 Exponential versus Hyperbolic Discounting of Delayed Outcomes: Risk and Waiting Time. American Zoologist 36:496–505.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1993a Appendix B: Paleoethnobotanical Evidence of Change and Continuity in Piedmont Subsistence. In Indian Communities on the North Carolina Piedmont A.D. 1000–1700, edited by H. Trawick Ward and R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr., pp. 455–466. Monograph No. 2, Research Laboratories of Anthropology, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1993b Adoption of Old World Crops and Processes of Cultural Change in the Historic Southeast. Southeastern Archaeology 12:15–20.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1995 Comparative Paleoethnobotany of Three Native Southeastern Communities of the Historic Period. Southeastern Archaeology 14:1–16.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 2002 Archaeobotany at Old Mobile. Historical Archaeology 36:117–128.Google Scholar
Guillet, David 1981 Agricultural Intensification and Deintensification in Lari, Colca Valley, Southern Peru. Research in Economic Anthropology 8:201–224.Google Scholar
Hammett, Julia E. 1992 Ethnohistory of Aboriginal Landscapes in the Southeastern United States. Southern Indian Studies 41:1–50.Google Scholar
Hammett, Julia E. 1997 Interregional Patterns of Land Use and Plant Management in Native North America, in People, Plants and Landscapes: Studies in Paleoethnobotany, edited by Kristen J. Gremillion, pp. 195–216. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Hatley, M. Thomas 1991 Cherokee Women Farmers Hold Their Ground. In Appalachian Frontiers: Settlement, Society, and Development in the Preindustrial Era, edited by Robert D. Mitchell, pp. 37–51. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.Google Scholar
Hatley, M. Thomas 1995 The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Holienbach, Kandace D., Sichler, Judith A., and Vavrasek, Jessica L. 2012 Cherokee Foodways in Tuckaleechee Cove. In The Cherokees of Tuckaleechee Cove, by Jon Marcoux, pp. 179–200. Museum of Anthropology Memoirs 52, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Holm, Mary Ann 2002 Vertebrate Subsistence Practices along the Dan River at the Time of Contact. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Special Publication 7:65–75.Google Scholar
Jackson, Jason B. 2004 Yuchi. In Southeast, edited by Raymond Fogelson, pp. 415–428. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 14, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Jenkins, Ned J. 2009 Tracing the Origins of the Early Creeks, 1050–1700 ce. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 188–249. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keel, Bennie C. 1976 Cherokee Archaeology: A Study of the Appalachian Summit. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Kelton, Paul 2002 The Great Southeastern Smallpox Epidemic, 1696–1700: The Region’s First Major Epidemic. In The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Charles Hudson, pp. 21–37. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.Google Scholar
Kintigh, Keith W 1984 Measuring Archaeological Diversity by Comparison with Simulated Assemblages. American Antiquity 49:44–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kintigh, Keith W 1989 Sample Size, Significance, and Measures of Diversity. In Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology, eds. Robert D Leonard and George T. Jones, pp. 25–36. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Knight, Vernon James Jr. 1994 The Formation of the Creeks. In The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and European in the American South, 1521–1704, edited by Charles Hudson and Carmen C. Tesser, pp. 373–392. University of Georgia Press, Athens.Google Scholar
Kowalewski, Stephen A. 2006 Coalescent Societies. In Light on the Path: The Anthropology and History of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Robbie Ethridge, pp. 94–122. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Lapham, Heather 2005 Hunting for Hides: Deerskins, Status, and Cultural Change in the Protohistoric Appalachians. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Legge, K. 1989 Changing Responses to Drought among the Wodaabe of Niger. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, ed. by Paul Halstead and John O’Shea, pp. 81–86. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcoux, Jon B. 2008 Cherokee Households and Communities in the English Contact Period, A.D. 1670–1740. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Marcoux, Jon B. 2010 Pox, Empire, Shackles, and Hides: The Townsend Site, 1670–1715. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Martin, Joel W. 1994 Southeastern Indians and the English Trade in Skins and Slaves. In The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521–1704, edited by Charles Hudson and Carmen C. Tesser, pp. 304–324. University of Georgia Press, Athens.Google Scholar
Merrell, John H. 1989a The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors From European Contact Through the Era of Removal. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Merrell, John H. 1989b “Our Bond of Peace”: Patterns of Intercultural Exchange in the Carolina Piedmont, 1650–1750. In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and M. Thomas Hatley, pp. 196–222. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Meyers, Maureen 2009 From Refugees to Slave Traders: The Transformation of the Westo Indians. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 81–103. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mine, Leah D. 1986 Scarcity and Survival: The Role of Oral Tradition in Mediating Subsistence Crises. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5:39–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myerson, J., and Green, L. 1995 Discounting of Delayed Rewards: Models of Individual Choice. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior 64:263–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nairne, Thomas 1988[1708] Thomas Nairne’s Memorial to Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland. In Nairne’s Muskhogean Journals: The 1708 Expedition to the Mississippi River, edited by Alexander Moore, pp. 73–79. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.Google Scholar
Newman, Robert D. 1979 The Acceptance of European Domestic Animals by the Eighteenth Century Cherokee. Tennessee Anthropologist 4(1):101–107.Google Scholar
O’Shea, John 1989 The Role of Wild Resources in Small-Scale Agricultural Systems: Tales from the Lakes and Plains. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, edited by Paul Halstead and John O’Shea, pp. 57–67. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oatis, Steven J. 2004 A Colonial Complex: South Carolina’s Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Pavao-Zuckerman, Barnet 2000 Vertebrate Subsistence in the Mississippian-Historic Transition. Southeastern Archaeology 19:135–144.Google Scholar
Perdue, Theda 1998 Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700–1835. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Peres, Tanya M. 2010 Methodological Issues in Zooarchaeology. In Integrating Zooarchaeology and Paleoethnobotany: A Consideration of Issues, Methods, and Cases, edited by Amber M. VanDerwarker and Tanya M. Peres, pp. 15–36. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polhemus, Richard R. 1987 The Toqua Site: A Late Mississippian Dallas Phase Town, Volume II. Report of Investigations No. 41. Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Raineri, A., and Cross, D. 1991 Subjective Probability and Delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:233–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramsey, William L. 2003 “Something Cloudy in Their Looks”: The Origins of the Yamasee War Reconsidered. The Journal of American History 90:44–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymer, Leslie E., O’Steen, Lisa, and Bonhage-Freund, Mary Theresa 1997 Subsistence Studies. In A Picture Unsurpassed: Prehistoric and Historic Indian Settlement and Landscape, Brasstown Valley, Towns County, Georgia, pp. 241–320. Report on File at New South Associates, Stone Mountain, Georgia.Google Scholar
Reid, John P. 1976 A Better Kind of Hatchet: Law, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Cherokee Nation during the Early Years of European Contact. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., Margaret Scarry, C., and Seifert, Donna J. 1985 Reconstructing Historic Subsistence with an Example from Sixteenth-Century Spanish Florida. Special publication No 3. Society for Historical Archaeology, Glassboro, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Wing, Elizabeth S. 2008 Zooarchaeology. 2th Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riggs, Brett H. 2012 Chestowee Reconsidered. In “One of the Other Nations”: Yuchi Indian Histories Before the Removal Era, edited by Jason B. Jackson, pp. 43–71. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Riggs, Brett H., and Rodning, Christopher B. 2002 Cherokee Ceramic Traditions of Southwestern North Carolina. North Carolina Archaeology 51:34–54.Google Scholar
Riggs, Brett H., Scott Shumate, M., and Evans-Shumate, Patti 1997 Archaeological Data Recovery at Site 31JK291, Jackson County, North Carolina. Report submitted to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Office of Cultural Resources, Cherokee, North Carolina.Google Scholar
Rodning, Christopher B. 2002 Reconstructing the Coalescence of Cherokee Communities in Southern Appalachia. In The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Charles Hudson, pp. 155–176. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.Google Scholar
Rodning, Christopher B. 2004 The Cherokee Town at Coweeta Creek. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Rodning, Christopher B. 2007 Building and Rebuilding Cherokee Houses and Town-houses in Southwestern North Carolina. In The Durable House: Architecture, Ancestors, and Origins, edited by Robin A. Beck, Jr., pp. 464–484. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper 35. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Rodning, Christopher B. 2008 Temporal Variation in Qualla Pottery at Coweeta Creek. North Carolina Archaeology 57:1–49.Google Scholar
Rodning, Christopher B. 2010 Colonial Trade and European Trade Goods at Cherokee Settlements in Southwestern North Carolina. North Carolina Archaeology 59:1–84.Google Scholar
Scarry, C. Margaret 1986 Change in Plant Procurement and Production during the Emergence of the Moundville Chiefdom. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Schroedl, Gerald F. (editor) 1986 Overhill Cherokee Archaeology at Chota-Tanasee. Report of Investigations 38, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Schroedl, Gerald F. 2000 Cherokee Ethnohistory and Archaeology from 1540 to 1838. In Indians of the Greater Southeast: Historical Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Bonnie G. McEwan, pp. 204–241. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Schroedl, Gerald R, and Shea, Andrea B. 1986 Plant Remains. In Overhill Cherokee Archaeology at Chota-Tanasee, edited by Gerald F. Schroedl, pp. 515–530. Report of Investigations 38, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Shumate, M. Scott, Riggs, Brett H., and Kimball, Larry R. 2005 The Alarka Farmstead Site: The Archaeology of a Mid-Seventeenth-Century Cherokee Winter House/Summer House Complex, Swain County, North Carolina. Google Scholar
Report submitted to National Forests in North Carolina, Appalachian State University Laboratories of Archaeological Science, Boone.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2005 Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North America. American Antiquity 70:55–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swanton, John R. 1930 The Kaskinampo Indians and Their Neighbors. American Anthropologist 32:405–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swanton, John R. 1998 Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Tucker, Bram T. 2006 A Future Discounting Explanation for the Persistence of a Mixed Foraging-Horticulture Strategy among the Mikea of Madagascar. In Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, ed. by Douglas J. Kennett and Bruce Winterhalder, pp. 22–40. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M. 2002 Swimming Upriver: Changes in Subsistence and Biogeography in the Roanoke River Valley. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Special Publication 7:57–64.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M. 2006 Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber, and Alvarado, Jennifer V. 2010 Analysis of Plant Remains from the Ravensford site. Report submitted to TRC Garrow Associates Inc., Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Report on file in the Paleoethnobotany Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., and Detwiler, Kandace R. 2000 Plant and Animal Subsistence at the Coweeta Creek Site (31MA34), Macon County, North Carolina. North Carolina Archaeology 49:59–77 Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., and Detwiler, Kandace R. 2002 Gendered Practice in Cherokee Foodways: A Spatial Analysis of Plant Remains from the Coweeta Creek site. Southeastern Archaeology 21:21–28.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., Margaret Scarry, C., and Eastman, Jane M. 2007 Menus for Families and Feasts: Household and Community Consumption of Plants at Upper Saratown, North Carolina. In The Archaeology of Food and Identity, edited by Kathryn C. Twiss, pp. 16–49. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Walker, Thomas S., and Jodha, N. S. 1986 How Small Farm Households Adapt to Risk. In Crop Insurance for Agricultural Development: Issues and Experience, ed. by Peter B. R. Hazell, Carlos Pomareda, and Alberto Valdés, pp. 17–34. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. (editors) 1993 Indian Communities on the North Carolina Piedmont A.D. 1000-1700. Monograph No. 2, Research Laboratories of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. 1999 Time Before History: The Archaeology of North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Warren, Stephen, and Noe, Randolph 2009 “The Greatest Travelers in America”: Shawnee Survival in the Shatter Zone. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 163–187. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1993 Historic Creek Indian Responses to European Trade and the Rise of Political Factions. In Ethnohistory and Archaeology: Approaches to Postcontact Change in the Americas, edited by J. Daniel Rogers and Samuel M. Wilson, pp. 123–131. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1997 Changing Strategies of Indian Field Location in the Early Historic Southeast. In People, Plants and Landscape: Case Studies in Paleoethnobotany, edited by Kristen J. Gremillion, pp. 179–194. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Wesson, Cameron B. 2008 Households and Hegemony: Early Creek Prestige Goods, Symbolic Capital, and Social Power. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wilson, Gregory D. 2008 The Archaeology of Everyday Life at Early Moundville. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1986 Diet Choice, Risk, and Food Sharing in a Stochastic Environment. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5:369–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1990 Open Field, Common Pot: Harvest Variability and Risk Avoidance in Agricultural and Foraging Societies. In Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies, edited by Elizabeth Cashdan, pp. 67–87. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Brace, Lu, Flora, and Tucker, Bram 1999 Risk Sensitive Adaptive Tactics: Models and Evidence from Subsistence Studies in Biology and Anthropology. Journal of Archaeological Research 7:301–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, Eric R. 1982 Europe and the People without History. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wood, Peter H. 1989 The Changing Population of the Colonial South: An Overview by Race and Region, 1685–1790. In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and M. Thomas Hatley, pp. 35–103. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar