Element contents
Series: Elements in Child Development
The Child as Visual Artist
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 April 2022
Summary
This Element focuses on the development of drawing (and painting) in childhood. The author begins by examining children's representational drawing, a topic that has received quite wide attention from the nineteenth century on. The author then turns to issues that have received far less attention and discusses the aesthetic property of expression, weighing the claim that young children's highly expressive drawings bear an affinity to twentieth century modernist art. The author then examines the function of drawing for children's emotional development. Next, looking at art prodigies, the author turns to the how of drawing, considering the relation of drawing talent to IQ and to visual-spatial skills. Finally, the author considers the relation between development and education in art and how educators can best nurture children's artistic development.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in Child DevelopmentOnline ISBN: 9781108937207Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 12 May 2022
References
300 Art Quotes (2021). Retrieved August 13, 2021 from https://wisdomquotes.com/art-quotes/.Google Scholar
Allen, M. L., Nurmsoo, E., & Freeman, N. (2016). Young children show representational flexibility when interpreting drawings. Cognition, 147, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.11.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arden, R., Trzakowski, M., Garfield, V., & Plomin, R. (2014). Genes influence young children’s human figure drawings and their association with intelligence a decade later. Psychological Science, 25(10), 1843–1850. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614540686.Google Scholar
Arnheim, R. (1954/1974/2004). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative eye. The new version. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Arnheim, R. (1989). Thoughts on art education. Occasional Paper 2. Los Angeles, CA: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts.Google Scholar
Bamberger, J. (1991). The mind behind the musical ear. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Barkan, M. (1962). Transition in art education: Changing conceptions of curriculum content and teaching. Art Education, 15(7), 12–18, 27–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/3186881.Google Scholar
Barnes, E. (1894). A study of children’s drawings. Pedagogical Seminary, 2(3), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/08919402.1982.10532896.Google Scholar
Bassett, E. M. (1977). Production strategies in the child’s drawing. In Butterworth, G. (Ed.), The child’s representation of the world (pp. 49–59). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billow, R. (1981). Observing spontaneous metaphor in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 31(3), 430–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(81)90028-X.Google Scholar
Bloom, P., & Markson, L. (1998). Intention and analogy in children’s naming of pictorial representations. Psychological Science, 9(3), 200–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Arterberry, M., & Mash, C. (2015). Perceptual development. In Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook (7th ed., pp. 335–390). New York: Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203112373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. & Putnick, D. L. (2019). The architecture of the child mind: g, Fs, and their hierarchy. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bower, T. G. R. (1965). Stimulus variables determining space perception in infants. Science, 149(3679), 88–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brechet, C., D’Audigier, L., & Audras-Torrent, D. (2020). The use of drawing as an emotion regulation technique with children. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000314.Google Scholar
Bremner, J. G., & Moore, S. (1984). Prior visual inspection and object naming: Two factors that enhance hidden feature inclusion in young children’s drawings. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2(4), 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1984.tb00944.x.Google Scholar
Brown, E. D., Garnett, M. L., Anderson, K. E., & Laurenceau, J.-P. (2017). Can the arts get under the skin? Arts and cortisol for economically disadvantaged children. Child Development, 88(4), 1368–1381. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, E. D., & Sax, K. L. (2013). Arts enrichment and preschool emotions for low-income children at risk. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(4), 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.08.002.Google Scholar
Browne, C. A., & Woolley, J. D. (2001). Theory of mind in children’s naming of drawings. Journal of Cognitive Development, 2(4), 389–412. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327647JCD0204_3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumm, A., Oktaviana, A. A., Burhan, B., Hakim, B., Lebe, R., Zhao, J-X. , Aubert, M. (2021). Oldest cave art found in Sulawesi. Science Advances, 7(3), eabd4648. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd4648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruner, J. (1960/1977). The process of education (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Callaghan, T. (1997). Children’s judgments of emotions portrayed in museum art. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 515–529. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1997.tb00744.x.Google Scholar
Callaghan, T. (2000). The role of context in preschoolers’ judgments of emotion in art. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 465–474. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151000165805.Google Scholar
Campos, A. (1998). A measure of visual imaging capacity: A preliminary study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87(3), 1012–1014. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1998.87.3.1012.Google Scholar
Caron, M. J., Mottron, L., Berthiaume, C., & Dawson, M. (2006). Cognitive mechanisms, specificity and neural underpinnings of visuospatial peaks in Autism. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 129(7), 1789–1802. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awl072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carothers, T., & Gardner, H. (1979). When children’s drawings become art: The emergence of aesthetic production and perception. Developmental Psychology, 159(5), 570–580. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078089.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, R., Drake, J. E., Kozbelt, A., Hickman, R., Siev, J., & Wagemans, J. (2019) Artists as experts in visual cognition: An update. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(1), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000156.Google Scholar
Chauvet, J. M., Deschamps, E. B., & Hillaire, C. (1996). Chauvet cave: The discovery of the world’s oldest paintings. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Clark, A. B. (1897). The child’s attitude towards perspective problems. In Barnes, E. (Ed.), Studies in education, Vol. 1 (pp. 283–294). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cox, M. V. (1978). Spatial depth relationships in young children’s drawings. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 26, 551–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(78)90132-7.Google Scholar
Cox, M. V. (1981). One thing behind another: Problems of representation in children’s drawings. Educational Psychology, 1(4), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341810010401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, M. V. (2005). The pictorial world of the child. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cox, M. V. & Bragal, C. (1985). The representation of spatial relationships in the drawings of ESN (M) and normal children. Educational Psychology, 5(3–4), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341850050310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, M. V., & Mason, S. (1998). The young child’s pictorial representation of the human figure. International Journal of Early Years Education, 6(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966976980060103.Google Scholar
Cox, M. V., & Parkin, C. E. (1986). Young children’s human figure drawings: Cross sectional and longitudinal studies. Educational Psychology, 6(4), 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341860060405.Google Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. S., Eds., (2000). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dalebroux, A., Goldstein, T. R., & Winner, E. (2008). Short-term mood repair through art-making: Attention redeployment is more effective than venting. Motivation and Emotion, 32(4), 288–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9105-1Google Scholar
D’Amico, V. (1942). Creative teaching in art. Scranton, PA: International Textbook Company.Google Scholar
D’Amico, V. (1960). Experiments in creative art teaching. A progress report on the department of education at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, 1937-1960. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.Google Scholar
Davis, A. (1983). Contextual sensitivity in young children’s drawings. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35(3), 478–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(83)90022-X.Google Scholar
Davis, J. H. (1997a). Drawing’s demise: U-shaped development in graphic symbolization. Studies in Art Education, 38(3), 132–157. https://doi.org/10.2307/1320290.Google Scholar
Davis, J. H. (1997b). The what and the whether of the U: Cultural implications of understanding development in graphic symbolization. Human Development, 40(3), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1159/000278717.Google Scholar
DeLoache, J. S. (1987). Rapid change in the symbolic functioning of very young children. Science, 238(4833), 1556–1557. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2446392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLoache, J. S., & Burns, N. M. (1994). Early understanding of the representational function of pictures. Cognition, 52(2), 83–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90063-9.Google Scholar
Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dennis, S. A. (1991). Stage and structure in children’s spatial representations. In Case, R. (Ed.), The Mind’s Staircase (pp. 229–245). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dewan, S. (2007). Use of crayons to exorcise Katrina. The New York Times, September 17. www.nytimes.com/2007/09/17/arts/design/17ther.html.Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Diliberto-Macaluso, K. A., & Stubblefield, B. L. (2015). The use of painting for short-term mood and arousal improvement. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9(3), 228–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039237.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E. (2021). How drawing to distract improves mood in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 622927. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.622927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, J. E., Ahern, M., Roche, E., & Winner, E. (2014). The value of making it by hand. Proceedings of the Biennial Congress of the International Association of Empirical Aesthetics, 174–179.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., & Jose, A. (2017). Maybe your child could have painted that: Comparing the works of artists, prodigies, and children. [Conference Presentation, August 3–6]. APA 2017, Washington, DC, United States.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., Redash, A., Coleman, K., Haimson, J., & Winner, E. (2010). “Autistic” local processing bias also found in children gifted in realistic drawing. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(6), 762–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0923-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, J. E., Riccio, A., Chamberlain, R., & Kozbelt, A. (2021). Artists have superior local and global processing abilities but show a preference for initially drawing globally. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000424.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2011). Realistic drawing talent in typical adults is associated with the same kind of local processing bias found in individuals with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41 (9), 1192–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2012a). Confronting sadness through art-making: Distraction is more beneficial than venting. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6(3), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026909.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2012b). Predicting artistic brilliance. Scientific American Mind, 23(5), 42–48.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2013). How children use drawing to regulate their emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 27(3), 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.720567.Google Scholar
Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2018). Extreme drawing realism in childhood. Roeper Review, 40(4), 222–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2018.1501781.Google Scholar
Dutton, D. (2009). The art instinct: Beauty, pleasure, and human evolution. New York: Bloomsbury Press.Google Scholar
Edgin, J. O., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Spatial cognition in autism spectrum disorders: Superior impaired or just intact? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0020-y.Google Scholar
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G., eds., (2012). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (3rd ed.). Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: Praeger.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinard, T. L., & Morris, A. S. (2002). Regulation, resiliency, and quality of social functioning. Self and Identity, 1(2), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319294.Google Scholar
Eisner, E. (1965). American education and the future of art education. Teachers College Record, 66(10), 299–325.Google Scholar
Eisner, E. (1966). The development of information and attitude toward art at the secondary and college levels. Studies in Art Education, 8(1), 43–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/1319592.Google Scholar
Ekstrom, R., French, J., Harman, H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Services.Google Scholar
Epstein, D. (2019). Range: Why generalists triumph in a specialized world. New York: Riverhead Books.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363.Google Scholar
Fineberg, J. (1998), ed., Discovering child art: Essays on childhood, primitivism, and modernism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans – Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95(1), 29–51.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (2007). What is intelligence? Beyond the Flynn effect. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Forkosh, J., & Drake, J. E. (2017) Coloring versus drawing: Effects of cognitive demand on mood repair, flow, and enjoyment. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 34(2), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2017.1327272.Google Scholar
Fowle, W. B. (1830). An introduction to linear drawing translated from the french of M. Francoeur: With alterations and additions to adapt it to the use of schools in the United States: To which are added the elements of linear perspective and questions on the whole. Boston, MA: Hilliard, Gray, Little, & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Freeman, N. (1975). Do children draw men with arms coming out of their head? Nature, 254(5499), 416–417. https://doi.org/10.1038/254416a0.Google Scholar
Freeman, N. H. (1977). How young children try to plan drawings. In Butterworth, G. (Ed.), The child’s representation of the world (pp. 3–29). Boston, MA: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2349-5_1.Google Scholar
Freeman, N. H. (1980). Strategies of representation in young children: Analysis of spatial skills and drawing processes. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Freeman, N. & Cox, M. (1985). Visual order: The nature and development of pictorial representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Freeman, N., Eiser, C., & Sayers, J. (1977). Children’s strategies in producing three-dimensional relationships on a two-dimensional surface. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23(2), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(77)90107-2.Google Scholar
Freeman, N., & Hargreaves, S. (1977). Directed movements and the body-proportion effect in preschool children’s human figure drawing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29(2), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640747708400599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, N. H., & Janikoun, R. (1972). Intellectual realism in children’s drawings of a familiar object with distinctive features. Child Development, 43(3), 1116–1121. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127668.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1980). Artful scribbles: The significance of children’s drawings. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H., Kircher, M., Winner, E., & Perkins, D. (1975). Children’s metaphoric productions and preferences. Journal of Child Language, 2(1), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000900000921.Google Scholar
Gardner, H., & Winner, E. (1982). First intimations of artistry. In Strauss, S. (Ed.), U-shaped behavioral growth (pp. 147–68). New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Geist, A., & Carroll, P. (2002). They still draw pictures: Children’s art in wartime from the Spanish Civil War to Kosovo. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Gernhardt, A. (2015). Cultural perspectives on children’s tadpole drawings: At the interface between representation and production. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 812. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00812.Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J., & Yonas, P. (1967). A new theory of scribbling and drawing in children. US Department of Health, Education & Welfare, Office of Education. ED017324. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED017324.pdf.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, L. T., & Feldman, D. H. (1989). Wang Yani: Gifts well given. In Ho, W.-C. (Ed.), Yani: The brush of innocence (pp. 51–62). Manchester, VT: Hudson Hills Press.Google Scholar
Golomb, C. (1981). Representation and reality: The origins and determinants of young children’s drawings. Review of Research in Visual Art Education, 7(2), 36–48.Google Scholar
Golomb, C. (2002). Child art in context: A cultural and comparative perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golomb, C. (2004). The child’s creation of a pictorial world (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Golomb, C., & Barr-Grossman, T. (1977). Representational development of the human figure in the familial retardate. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 95(2), 247–266.Google Scholar
Gombrich, E. H. (1960). Art and illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Goodenough, F. (1926) L’Intelligence d’Après le Dessin, Le Test du Bonhomme [Intelligence revealed by drawing, the Draw-a-Man test]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Goodnow, J. J. (1977). Children’s drawings. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gopnik, A. (2020). Childhood as a solution to explore–exploit tensions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 375(1803), 20190502. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0502.Google Scholar
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A., & Kuhl, P. (1999). The scientist in the crib: What early learning tells us about the mind. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Greer, W. D. (1984). Discipline-Based Art Education: Approaching art as a subject of study. Studies in Art Education, 25, 4, 212–218.Google Scholar
Gresham, F. M. (1993). What’s wrong in this picture?: Response to Motta et al.’s review of human figure drawing. School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 182–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088269.Google Scholar
Güllich, A., Macnamara, B. N., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2022). What makes a champion? Early multi-disciplinary practice, not early specialization, predicts world-class performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(1), 6–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620974772.Google Scholar
Hall, G. S. (1893). The contents of children’s minds on entering school. New York & Chicago: E. L. Kellogg & Co.Google Scholar
Hall, S. (1892). Notes on children’s drawings: Literature and notes. Pedagogical Seminary, 1, 445–447.Google Scholar
Hawley-Dolan, A., & Winner, E. (2011). Seeing the mind behind the art: People can distinguish abstract expressionist paintings from highly similar paintings by children, chimps, monkeys, and elephants. Psychological Science, 22(4), 435–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611400915.Google Scholar
Hermelin, B., & O’Connor, N. (1990). Art and accuracy: The drawing ability of idiot-savants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31(2), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1990.tb01563.x.Google Scholar
Hochberg, J., & Brooks, V. (1962). Pictorial recognition as an unlearned ability: A study of one child’s performance. The American Journal of Psychology, 75(4), 624–628. https://doi.org/10.2307/1420286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hood, B., & Bloom, P. (2008). Children prefer certain individuals over perfect duplicates. Cognition, 106(1), 455–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.01.012.Google Scholar
Ives, S. W. (1984). The development of expressivity in drawing. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(2), 152–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1984.tb02575.x.Google Scholar
Jahoda, G. (1981). Drawing styles of schooled and unschooled adults: A study in Ghana. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A, 33(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640748108400780.Google Scholar
Jolley, R. P. (2010). Children and pictures: Drawing and understanding. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Jolley, R. P., Fenn, K., & Jones, L. (2004). The development of children’s expressive drawing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22(4), 545–567. https://doi.org/10.1348/0261510042378236.Google Scholar
Jolley, R. P., Knox, E. L., & Foster, S. G. (2000). The relationship between children’s production and comprehension of realism in drawing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(4), 557–582.https://doi.org/10.1348/026151000165850.Google Scholar
Jolley, R. P., & Thomas, G. V. (1994). The development of sensitivity to metaphorical expression of moods in abstract art. Educational Psychology, 14(4), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341940140406.Google Scholar
Kastor, E. (1989). Puzzles of a prodigy. The Washington Post, July 6. www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/07/06/puzzles-of-a-prodigy/20733ebd-a419-43f2-8c91-58a872be4c72/.Google Scholar
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Kerschensteiner, G. (1905). Die Entwicklung der zeichnerischen Begabung. Munich: Gerber.Google Scholar
Kim, K. J. (2011). The creativity crisis: The decrease in creative thinking scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 23(4), 285–295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2011.627805.Google Scholar
Kozbelt, A. (2001). Artists as experts in visual cognition. Visual Cognition, 8(6), 705–723. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280042000090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, C., Russell, C., & Berridge, D. (1993). When is a mug not a mug: Effects of content, naming, and instructions on children’s drawings. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56(3), 291–302.Google Scholar
Light, P. H., & MacIntosh, E. (1980). Depth relationships in young children’s drawings. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3(1), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(80)90076-4.Google Scholar
Liu, L., Dehmamy, N., Chown, J., Giles, C. L., & Wang, D. (2021). Understanding the onset of hot streaks across artistic, cultural, and scientific careers. Nature Communications, 12, 5392. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25477-8.Google Scholar
Lowenfeld, V., & Brittain, W. L. (1970). Creative and mental growth (5th ed.). New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Lukens, H. (1896). The study of children’s drawings in the early years. Pedagogical Seminar, 4(1), 79–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/08919402.1896.10532957.Google Scholar
Luquet, G. H. (1927/2001). Children’s drawings (A. Costall, Trans.). London & New York: Free Association Books (Original work published 1927 as Le Dessin Enfantin. Paris: Alcan).Google Scholar
Maitland, L. (1895). What children draw to please themselves. Inland Educator, 1, 77–81.Google Scholar
Malvern, S. B. (1995). Inventing “child art”: Franz Cižek and modernism. British Journal of Aesthetics, 35(3), 262–272. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjaesthetics/35.3.262.Google Scholar
Matthews, J. (1984). Are young children really scribbling? Early Child Development and Care, 18(1–2), 1–39.Google Scholar
Matthews, J. (2003). Drawing and painting: Children and visual representation (2nd ed.). London: Paul Chapman Publishing.Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: Past, present, and future. In Flanagan, D. P. & Harrison, P. L. (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed., pp. 136–182). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Miall, R. C., & Tchalenko, J. (2001). A painter’s eye movements: A study of eye and hand movement during portrait drawing. Leonardo, 34(1), 35–40.Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. M., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.Google Scholar
Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., Belleville, S., & Enns, J. T. (2003). Locally oriented perception with intact global processing among adolescents with high functioning autism: Evidence from multiple paradigms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(6), 904–913. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00174.Google Scholar
Newman, , & Bloom, P. (2012). Art and authenticity. The importance of originals in judgments of value. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026035.Google Scholar
Olson, R. K., & Boswell, S. L. (1976). Pictorial depth sensitivity in 2-year-old children. Child Development, 47(4), 1175–1178. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128458.Google Scholar
Paget, G. W. (1932). Some drawings of men and women made by children of certain non-European races. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 62, 127–144.Google Scholar
Pariser, D. (1987). The juvenile drawings of Klee, Toulouse-Lautrec and Picasso. Visual Arts Research, 13(2), 53–67.Google Scholar
Pariser, D. (1991). Normal and unusual aspects of juvenile artistic development in Klee, Lautrec, and Picasso. Creativity Research Journal, 4(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419109534373.Google Scholar
Pariser, D., Kindler, A., van den Berg, A., Dias, B., & Liu, W.C. (2007). Does practice make perfect? Children’s and adult’s constructions of graphic merit and development: A cross-cultural study. Visual Arts Research, 33(2), 96–114.Google Scholar
Pariser, D., & van den Berg, A. (1997). The mind of the beholder: Some provisional doubts about the U-curved aesthetic development thesis. Studies in Art Education, 38(3), 158–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/1320291.Google Scholar
Peters, M., Laeng, B., Latham, K., Jackson, M., l. Zaiyouna, R., & Richardson, C. (1995). A redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse mental rotations test: Different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain and Cognition, 28(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.1995.1032.Google Scholar
Phillips, W. A., Inall, M., & Lauder, E. (1985). On the discovery, storage and use of graphic descriptions. In Freeman, N. H. and Cox, M. V. (Eds.), Visual order (pp. 122–134). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child’s conception of space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: W. Morrow & Company.Google Scholar
Preissler, M. A., & Bloom, P. (2008). Two-year-olds use artist intention to understand drawings. Cognition, 106(1), 512–518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.02.002.Google Scholar
Pring, L., Hermelin, B., & Heavey, L. (1995). Savants, segments, art and autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(6), 1065–1076. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01351.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rader, N., & Hughes, E. (2005). The influence of affective state on the performance of a block design task in 6- and 7-year-old children. Cognition and Emotion, 19(1), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000049.Google Scholar
Radkey, A. L., & Enns, J. T. (1987). Da Vinci’s window facilitates drawings of total and partial occlusion in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 44(2), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(87)90031-2.Google Scholar
Reith, E., & Dominin, D. (1997). The development of children’s ability to attend to the visual projection of objects. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(2), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1997.tb00733.x.Google Scholar
Ricci, C. (1887/1941). L’arte dei bambini [The art of children]. Bologna, Italy: Zanichelli.Google Scholar
Rübeling, H., Keller, H., Yovsi, R. D., Lenk, M., Schwarzer, S., & Kuhne, N. (2011). Children’s drawings of the self as an expression of cultural conceptions of the self. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(3), 406–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110363475.Google Scholar
Ruskin, J. (1876). The elements of drawing: In three letters to beginners. New York: Jon Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Ryder, N., Pring, L., & Hermelin, B. (2002). Lack of coherence and divergent thinking: Two sides of the same coin in artistic talent. Current Psychology, 21(2), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-002-1011-1.Google Scholar
Saarni, C. S. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sacks, O. (1995). A neurologist’s notebook: Prodigies. The New Yorker, 70(43), January 9, 44–65. www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995/01/09/prodigies.Google Scholar
Saenger, E. (1981). Drawing systems: A developmental study of representation. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation thesis]. Harvard University.Google Scholar
Saito, A., Hayashi, M., Takeshita, H., & Matsuzawa, T. (2014). The origin of representational drawing: A comparison of human children and chimpanzees. Child Development, 85(6), 2232–2246. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12319.Google Scholar
Schjeldahl, P. (2021). Drawing conclusions: Cézanne at MoMA. The New Yorker, June, 28, 72–73. www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/06/28/my-struggle-with-cezanne.Google Scholar
Selfe, L. (1977). Nadia: A case of extraordinary drawing ability in an autistic child. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Selfe, L. (1983). Normal and anomalous representational drawing ability in children. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Selfe, L. (1985). Anomalous drawing development: Some clinical studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Selfe, L. (1995). Nadia reconsidered. In Golomb, C. (Ed.), The development of artistically gifted children: Selected case studies (pp. 197–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Selfe, L. (2011). Nadia revisited: A longitudinal study of an autistic savant. London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An islet of ability in autistic children: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24(4), 613–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00137.x.Google Scholar
Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the Block Design Task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(8), 1351–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02095.x.Google Scholar
Sloane, K. D., & Sosniak, L. A. (1985). The development of accomplished sculptors. In Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), Developing talent in young people (pp. 90–138). New York: Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
Smith, R. (2015). Aelita Andre, 9, opens up about her inspiration, her future and the her take on the cosmos. The Courier Mail, April 6. www.couriermail.com.au/news/aelita-andre-9-opens-up-about-her-inspiration-her-future-and-the-her-take-on-the-cosmos/news-story/f5410fc56e3f32913b7ab9b08b3b0176?from=public_rss.Google Scholar
Snapper, L., Oranç, C., Hawley-Dolan, A., Nissel, J., & Winner, E. (2015). Your kid could not have done that: Even untutored observers can discern intentionality and structure in abstract expressionist art. Cognition, 137, 154–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.12.009.Google Scholar
Sze, M. (1978) (ed., & translator), The mustard seed garden manual of painting. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Tarr, P. (1990). More than movement: Scribbling reassessed. Visual Arts Research, 16(1), 83–89.Google Scholar
Temkin, A., & Kelly, E. (2013). Chatham series. New York: Museum of Modern Art Publications.Google Scholar
Thomas, G. V., & Silk, A. M. J. (1990). An introduction to the psychology of children’s drawings. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166137.Google Scholar
Troncone, A., Chianese, A., Di Leva, A., Grasso, M., & Cascella, C. (2020). Validity of the Draw a Person: A quantitative scoring system (DAP: QSS) for clinically evaluating intelligence. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 52, 728–738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01058-6.Google Scholar
Quotes, Twyla Tharp (2021). Retrieved August 13, 2021 from www.brainyquote.com/quotes/twyla_tharp_104104.Google Scholar
Varnedoe, K. (2006). Pictures of nothing: Abstract art science pollock. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Volavková, H. (1993). I never saw another butterfly: Children’s drawings and poems from Terezin concentration camp, 1942–1944. New York: Schocken Books.Google Scholar
Weinstein, E., Clark, Z., DiBartolomeo, D., & Davis, K. (2014). A decline in creativity? It depends on the domain. Creativity Research Journal, 26(2), 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2014.901082.Google Scholar
Weitz, M. (1956). The role of theory in aesthetics. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 15(1), 27–35.Google Scholar
Wilcox, B. L., & Teghtsoonian, M. (1971). The control of relative size by pictorial depth cues in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 11(3), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(71)90046-4.Google Scholar
Willats, J. (1977). How children learn to draw realistic pictures. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29(3), 367–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640747708400614.Google Scholar
Willats, J. (1985). Drawing systems revisited: The role of denotation systems in children’s figure drawings. In Freeman, N. H. and Cox, M. V. (Eds.), Visual order (pp. 78–100). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Willats, J. (2005). Making sense of children’s drawings. Mahwah, NJ, and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Wilson, F. (1921). A lecture by Professor Cižek. Children’s Art Exhibition Fund. Facsimile of original available at amazon.com. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b2809598&view=1up&seq=5.Google Scholar
Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1982). The case of the disappearing two-eyed profile: Or how little children influence the drawings of little children. Review of Research in Visual Arts Education, 8(1), 19–32.Google Scholar
Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1987). Pictorial composition and narrative structure: Themes and the creation of meaning in the drawings of Egyptian and Japanese children. Visual Arts Research, 13(2), 10–21.Google Scholar
Winner, E. (1979). New names for old things: The emergence of metaphoric language. Journal of Child Language, 6(3), 469–491. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500090000249X.Google Scholar
Winner, E. (1982). Invented worlds: The psychology of the arts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Winner, E. (1989). How can Chinese children draw so well? Journal of Aesthetic Education, 23(1), 41–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/3332888.Google Scholar
Winner, E. (2022). An uneasy guest: Art education from the nineteenth century to a promising future. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Winner, E., Blank, P., Massey, C., & Gardner, H. (1983). Children’s sensitivity to aesthetic properties of line drawings. In Rogers, D. and Sloboda, J. A. (Eds.), The acquisition of symbolic skills (pp. 97–104). London: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Winner, E., & Casey, M. B. (1992). Cognitive profiles of artists. In Cupchik, G. and Laszlo, J. (Eds.), Emerging visions of the aesthetic process (pp. 154–170). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Winston, A. S., Kenyon, B., Stewardson, J., & Lepine, T. (1995). Children’s sensitivity to expression of emotion in drawings. Visual Arts Research, 21(1), 1–14.Google Scholar
Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). Group embedded figures test manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Zhensun, A. & Low, A. (1991). A young painter: The life and paintings of Wang Yani – China’s extraordinary young artist. New York: Scholastic, Inc.Google Scholar