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8687 results in Cognition

Page 193 of 435

  • 2 - The Tools of Cognitive Neuroscience

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 24-45

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To describe how fMRI measures brain activity and characterize this method's spatial resolution and temporal resolution.

  • • To describe how ERPs measure brain activity and characterize this method's spatial resolution and temporal resolution.

  • • To list one problem with patient lesion evidence.

  • • To describe how TMS works and characterize this method's spatial resolution and temporal resolution.

  • • To name two methods that could be combined to measure brain activity with excellent spatial resolution and excellent temporal resolution.

    • Cognitive neuroscientists employ tools to look inside the brain of participants while they are actively engaged in a mental process. This is no simple feat, and the field of cognitive neuroscience has grown with the advent of techniques that can measure activity in the functioning human brain. These methods vary in popularity, cost, complexity, spatial resolution, and temporal resolution. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages and takes years to master. This chapter briefly describes the most widely used techniques in cognitive neuroscience that will be referred to throughout this book. Section 2.1 briefly reviews the behavioral measures that allow for the interpretation of brain activation results. Section 2.2 discusses techniques with high spatial resolution, such as fMRI, which is the most popular method. fMRI measures the increases in blood flow that occur in active brain regions. This technique has excellent spatial resolution but has poor temporal resolution because the blood flow response is slow. Section 2.3 focuses on techniques with high temporal resolution, such as event-related potentials (ERPs). ERPs measure voltages (i.e., potentials) on the scalp that directly reflect the underlying brain activity. This technique has excellent temporal resolution and limited spatial resolution. In section 2.4, techniques with excellent spatial resolution and excellent temporal resolution are described. These include combined fMRI and ERPs as well as depth electrode recording from patients who have electrodes implanted in their brains for clinical reasons. Section 2.5 considers evidence from patients with brain lesions and cortical deactivation methods such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Both of these methods have limited spatial resolution and poor temporal resolution; however, they can assess whether a brain region is necessary for a given cognitive process.

  • 5 - In-Depth Cognitive Processing: Maximizing the “Long-Term” in Long-Term Memory

  • Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado
  • Book:
    How We Think and Learn
    Published online:
    02 March 2017
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 72-95

  • Summary

    Chapter 5 explores various ways in which we might encode and store information in long-term memory. It first describes three relatively ineffective (and thus not recommended) strategies: short-term rehearsal, rote memorization, and the study of allegedly “mind-strengthening” subject matter. It then describes several more meaningful and effective long-term memory storage processes: elaboration, imagery, mnemonic devices (for seemingly meaningless facts and lists), and regular review and practice. The chapter also includes sections on transfer (i.e., application of acquired information and skills to new situations) and critical thinking. The chapter’s “Being Strategic” section offers recommendations related to effective learning and memory for the long run (e.g., the importance of scaffolding students’ early use of new learning strategies and the use of authentic activities as a means of promoting transfer).

Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
  • Scott D. Slotnick
  • Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017
  • Within the last two decades, the field of cognitive neuroscience has begun to thrive, with technological advances that non-invasively measure human brain activity. This is the first book to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date treatment on the cognitive neuroscience of memory. Topics include cognitive neuroscience techniques and human brain mechanisms underlying long-term memory success, long-term memory failure, working memory, implicit memory, and memory and disease. Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory highlights both spatial and temporal aspects of the functioning human brain during memory. Each chapter is written in an accessible style and includes background information and many figures. In his analysis, Scott D. Slotnick questions popular views, rather than simply assuming they are correct. In this way, science is depicted as open to question, evolving, and exciting.

  • 7 - Implicit Memory

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 129-149

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To describe the behavioral effects and brain effects that typically occur during implicit memory.

  • • To identify the brain regions associated with implicit memory.

  • • To characterize the brain activity frequency bands associated with implicit memory.

  • • To detail the different neural models of implicit memory.

  • • To determine whether there is convincing evidence that implicit memory is associated with the hippocampus.

  • • To describe two different patterns of brain activity that occur during skill learning.

    • In everyday life, the term memory is used to refer to the conscious experience of a previous event. However, when an event is repeated, there can also be behavioral effects and brain effects that occur outside of conscious experience. Implicit memory refers to a lack of conscious experience or awareness of previously learned information. This includes more efficient or fluent processing of an item when it is repeated (i.e., repetition priming) and skill learning (see Chapter 1). Section 7.1 of this chapter considers the brain regions that have been associated with implicit memory, which include the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and sensory processing regions (a subset of the regions associated with long-term memory; see Chapters 1 and 3). In section 7.2, the frequency bands of activity associated with implicit memory are discussed, which include gamma activity and alpha activity (a subset of the frequency bands of activity associated with long-term memory; see Chapter 4). Although there is some overlap between implicit memory and long-term memory with regard to the associated regions and frequency bands of activity, there are many notable differences that will be highlighted in this chapter. For instance, in direct opposition to the increases in cortical activity associated with long-term memory, implicit memory is typically associated with decreases in cortical activity. Section 7.3 details theoretical models of neural activity that underlie implicit memory effects and discusses ways in which these models can be distinguished from one another. In the fourth section, 7.4, evidence is considered that has claimed to link the hippocampus to implicit memory, which if true would contradict the evidence that this region is associated with only long-term memory.

How We Think and Learn
  • Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Implications
  • Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
  • Published online:
    02 March 2017
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017
  • Written in a conversational and engaging manner, How We Think and Learn introduces readers to basic principles and research findings regarding human cognition and memory. It also highlights and debunks twenty-eight common misconceptions about thinking, learning, and the brain. Interspersed throughout the book are many short do-it-yourself exercises in which readers can observe key principles in their own thinking and learning. All ten chapters end with concrete recommendations - both for readers' own learning and for teaching and working effectively with others. As an accomplished researcher and writer, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod gives us a book that is not only highly informative but also a delight to read.

  • 10 - Self-Regulating Our Behavior: Turning Intentions into Actions

  • Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado
  • Book:
    How We Think and Learn
    Published online:
    02 March 2017
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 161-172

  • Summary

    Chapter 10 focuses on self-regulated behavior strategies. It stresses the fact that motivation alone is not enough to enable the get-up-and-go required to accomplish challenging new tasks. Instead, people must have concrete strategies for getting themselves in gear to move forward. The chapter discusses five important components of self-regulated behavior: setting goals to be accomplished, planning a concrete and detailed course of action, self-instructions, self-monitoring, and self-imposing consequences for accomplishments.

  • 11 - The Future of Memory Research

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 219-237

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To understand the similarities between phrenology and fMRI.

  • • To list two advantages of ERPs over fMRI.

  • • To describe how brain region interaction studies are conducted.

  • • To characterize how the field of cognitive neuroscience will change in the future.

  • • To specify whether research on temporal processing in the brain will increase in the future.

    • Research on human memory is completely dependent on the methods that are employed in the field of cognitive neuroscience, and thus the future of memory research will follow the future of cognitive neuroscience. This final chapter focuses on the cognitive neuroscience techniques that have been employed in the past and the techniques that will be employed in the future. Section 11.1 describes the similarities between fMRI, which identifies brain regions associated with a cognitive process, and phrenology, a pseudoscience from two centuries ago in which each protrusion of the skull was associated with a particular behavioral characteristic. In section 11.2, fMRI is directly compared to ERPs. As fMRI has poor temporal resolution, only ERPs can measure the temporal dynamics of the functioning brain. A cost–benefit analysis favors ERPs, and government agencies are starting to increase funding for research that employs ERPs. Section 11.3 discusses research investigating brain region interactions, which will also receive increased government funding. Brain region interaction research has only recently started to be conducted and involves brain activity frequency analysis or modulating one brain region and measuring how that changes activity in another brain region. Section 11.4 provides an overview of the field of cognitive neuroscience in the future. A distinction is made between human brain mapping, which refers to identifying the brain regions associated with a cognitive process using fMRI, and research that investigates brain region interactions using EEG frequency analysis and combined techniques. It is predicted that human brain mapping research will be assimilated by the field of cognitive psychology and that the field of cognitive neuroscience will consist of human brain region interaction research and will be an area within the field of behavioral neuroscience. The final section, 11.5, shines a spotlight on the dimension of time. To date, temporal processing in the brain has received less attention than spatial localization. However, time is the future of the cognitive neuroscience of memory.

  • 8 - Memory and Other Cognitive Processes

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 150-170

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To describe the cognitive processes and brain regions associated with visual attention.

  • • To compare the brain regions associated with visual attention to working memory and long-term memory.

  • • To describe the cognitive processes and brain regions associated with visual imagery.

  • • To compare the brain regions associated with visual imagery to working memory and long-term memory.

  • • To list the two primary brain regions associated with language processing and name two ways in which language processing is relevant to memory.

  • • To identify the two regions that interact to enhance memory for emotional information.

    • Attention is focused on the contents of all explicit memories. The experience of detailed recollection seems similar to the experience of vivid imagery. This chapter compares the cognitive processes and brain regions associated with memory to the cognitive processes and brain regions associated with attention, imagery, language, and emotion. Section 8.1 reviews the brain regions that have been associated with attention, which include sensory processing regions in addition to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex control regions. These regions are similar to the regions that have been associated with working memory and long-term memory (except for the additional dependence of long-term memory on the medial temporal lobe; see Chapters 3 and 6). In section 8.2 of this chapter, the brain regions associated with imagery are reviewed, which also include sensory processing regions, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the parietal cortex. The cognitive processes and brain processes associated with visual imagery are compared to the cognitive processes and brain processes associated with working memory and long-term memory. Section 8.3 details the regions of the brain associated with language processing, which include the left inferior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the left posterior lateral temporal cortex. These regions are of relevance to memory studies, which often use words and meaningful objects as stimuli that have language/conceptual representations. The final section, 8.4, considers the brain regions that have been associated with emotion, which include the amygdala (a region just anterior to the hippocampus) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

  • 4 - Brain Timing Associated with Long-Term Memory

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 71-87

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To understand the timing and location of brain activity associated with recollection and familiarity.

  • • To contrast the evidence on both sides of the scientific debate about activity that has been associated with familiarity.

  • • To describe what is meant by synchronous activity and how such activity indicates two brain regions interact.

  • • To list the three frequency bands of brain activity associated with long-term memory.

    • The large majority of human neuroscience research on long-term memory has focused on identifying the spatial locations of activity associated with this process (see Chapter 3). Although the temporal dimension of brain activity is often ignored, this does not mean that brain activity is static across time. In reality, brain activity changes rapidly across time, and the temporal dynamics of activity must be tracked to understand the brain mechanisms underlying memory. This chapter focuses on the timing of brain activity associated with long-term memory. As discussed previously (see Chapters 1 and 3), recollection refers to retrieval of detailed information, whereas familiarity refers to retrieval of non-detailed information. The chapter begins by introducing event-related potential (ERP) activations (see Chapter 2) that have been associated with familiarity and recollection (section 4.1). Familiarity has been associated with activity in frontal brain regions that occurs within 300 to 500 milliseconds after stimulus onset, while recollection has been associated with activity in parietal brain regions that occurs within 500 to 800 milliseconds after stimulus onset. In section 4.2, a scientific debate that has focused on the ERP activity associated with familiarity is discussed. In section 4.3, it is shown that synchronous activity in two different brain regions (i.e., activation timecourses that increase and decrease together) indicates that these regions interact. Such synchronous activity between regions during long-term memory typically occurs within specific frequency bands of activity including the theta frequency band (4 to 8 cycles per second, i.e., Hertz), the alpha frequency band (8 to 12 Hertz), and the gamma frequency band (greater than 30 Hertz). Theta activity reflects the interaction between the hippocampus and cortical regions during long-term memory, alpha activity reflects inhibition of cortical regions, and gamma activity reflects processing of features in different cortical regions that are combined to create a unified memory.

  • 7 - Metacognition: Thinking about Thinking

  • Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado
  • Book:
    How We Think and Learn
    Published online:
    02 March 2017
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 116-129

  • Summary

    Chapter 7 describes the multifaceted nature of metacognition, with a key point being that effective learning requires both self-reflection and self-direction. Metacognitive processes are illustrated in discussions of three general types of learning tasks: reading for learning, learning from Internet websites, and learning how to play music in a meaningful manner. Epistemic beliefs (a.k.a. epistemological beliefs) and their effects on learning and cognition are examined in considerable detail, and various aspects of self-regulated learning (e.g., self-controlling attention, monitoring comprehension) are introduced. The chapter’s “Being Strategic” section includes recommendations related to epistemic beliefs, comprehension monitoring, and co-regulated learning.

  • 10 - Long-Term Memory in Animals

  • Scott D. Slotnick, Boston College, Massachusetts
  • Book:
    Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 February 2017, pp 196-218

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

  • • To identify the regions of the medial temporal lobe that are associated with item memory, context memory, and binding item information and context information in rats, cats, and monkeys.

  • • To understand how long-term potentiation links cortical regions to the hippocampus.

  • • To compare the brain regions that have been associated with memory replay in rats and the brain regions associated with episodic memory in humans.

  • • To detail the paradigms that have been used to uncover time cells in the hippocampus of rats and monkeys.

  • • To describe one type of behavioral evidence and one type of brain evidence that indicates mammals have episodic memory.

    • This book is on the cognitive neuroscience of memory, so why is there a chapter on animal memory? One reason is that the same brain processes associated with memory in animals are often associated with memory in humans. These can be considered core brain processes that mediate memory across species. A second reason is that certain techniques can be used only on animals, such as targeted single-cell recording and brain lesions. The results of such techniques offer a detailed view into the brain mechanisms underlying memory that is not available in humans. This chapter focuses on long-term memory in animals, which relates to the large majority of research conducted with humans. Section 10.1 shows that rats, cats, and monkeys have a medial temporal lobe organization that is the same as humans. The perirhinal cortex is associated with item memory, the parahippocampal cortex is associated with context memory, and the hippocampus is associated with binding item information and context information. In section 10.2, long-term potentiation in the hippocampus is discussed, which is the mechanism by which cortical regions link to the hippocampus. Section 10.3 reviews evidence for memory replay in rats, which refers to reactivation of the same brain regions in the same or the reverse temporal sequence that were activated during a previous event.

Page 193 of 435