Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Preface
- Part I Theory
- Part II Ecosystems
- 2 The spatio-temporal dynamics of trophic control in large marine ecosystems
- 3 Top-down and bottom-up interactions in freshwater ecosystems: emerging complexities
- 4 Top-down and bottom-up interactions determine tree and herbaceous layer dynamics in savanna grasslands
- 5 Bottom-up and top-down forces shaping wooded ecosystems: lessons from a cross-biome comparison
- 6 Dynamic systems of exchange link trophic dynamics in freshwater and terrestrial food webs
- 7 Bottom-up and top-down interactions in coastal interface systems
- Part III Patterns and Processes
- Index
- References
4 - Top-down and bottom-up interactions determine tree and herbaceous layer dynamics in savanna grasslands
from Part II - Ecosystems
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 May 2015
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Preface
- Part I Theory
- Part II Ecosystems
- 2 The spatio-temporal dynamics of trophic control in large marine ecosystems
- 3 Top-down and bottom-up interactions in freshwater ecosystems: emerging complexities
- 4 Top-down and bottom-up interactions determine tree and herbaceous layer dynamics in savanna grasslands
- 5 Bottom-up and top-down forces shaping wooded ecosystems: lessons from a cross-biome comparison
- 6 Dynamic systems of exchange link trophic dynamics in freshwater and terrestrial food webs
- 7 Bottom-up and top-down interactions in coastal interface systems
- Part III Patterns and Processes
- Index
- References
Summary
A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Trophic EcologyBottom-up and Top-down Interactions across Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems, pp. 86 - 106Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2015
References
, , , et al. (2010). Landscape-scale analyses suggest both nutrient and antipredator advantages to Serengeti herbivore hotspots. Ecology, 91, 1519–1529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2003). Growing tall vs growing wide: tree architecture and allometry of Acacia karroo in forest, savanna, and arid environments. Oikos, 102, 3–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2007). Leaf green-up in a semi-arid African savanna – separating tree and grass responses to environmental cues. Journal of Vegetation Science, 18, 583–594.Google Scholar
, , and (2005). Shaping the landscape: fire-grazer interactions in an African savanna. Ecological Applications, 15, 96–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2009). What limits fire? An examination of drivers of burnt area in Southern Africa. Global Change Biology, 15, 613–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2012). Evolution of human-driven fire regimes in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 109, 847–852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2004). Regulation of shrub dynamics by native browsing ungulates on East African rangeland. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 45–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2006). Herbivore impact on grassland plant diversity depends on habitat productivity and herbivore size. Ecology Letters, 9, 780–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2002). Spatial and temporal variation in a mesic savanna fire regime: responses to variation in annual rainfall. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 19, 45–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2001). Effects of large herbivores and fire on the regeneration of Acacia erioloba woodlands in Chobe National Park, Botswana. African Journal of Ecology, 39, 340–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2009). Vegetation, fire, and feedbacks: a disturbance-mediated model of savannas. American Naturalist, 174, 805–818.Google ScholarPubMed
and (2006). The origin of the savanna biome. Global Change Biology, 12, 2023–2031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1992). Effects of grazing, competition, disturbance and fire on species composition and diversity in grassland communities. Journal of Vegetation Science, 3, 187–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2012). evaluating ecohydrological theories of woody root distribution in the Kalahari. PLoS One, 7, e33996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2005). Large parts of the world are brown or black: a different view on the “Green World” hypothesis. Journal of Vegetation Science, 16, 261–266.Google Scholar
(2008). What limits trees in C-4 grasslands and savannas? Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 39, 641–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2010). Do nutrient-poor soils inhibit development of forests? A nutrient stock analysis. Plant Soil, 334, 47–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005). Fire as a global “herbivore”: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20, 387–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2001). Introduction of giraffe changes acacia distribution in a South African savanna. African Journal of Ecology, 39, 286–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2012). Carbon dioxide and the uneasy interactions of trees and savannah grasses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B, 367, 601–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2005). The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist, 165, 525–537.Google Scholar
, , Jr, and (2008). The antiquity of Madagascar's grasslands and the rise of C4 grassy biomes. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1743–1758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2000). Phylogenetic analysis of coadaptation in behavior, diet, and body size in the African antelope. Behavioral Ecology, 11, 452–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2005). An ecosystem in transition: causes and consequences of the conversion of mesic grassland to shrubland. Bioscience, 55, 243–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1991). Developmental morphology and physiology of grasses. In Grazing Management: An Ecological Perspective, ed. and . Portland, OR: Timber Press, pp. 85–108.Google Scholar
and (2007). A continental-scale analysis of tree cover in African savannas. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 16, 593–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2009). Controls of aboveground net primary production in mesic savanna grasslands: an inter-hemispheric comparison. Ecosystems, 12, 982–995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2011). Increased tree densities in South African savannas: >50 years of data suggests CO2 as a driver. Global Change Biology, 18, 675–684.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2004). N-15 natural abundance in woody plants and soils of central Brazilian savannas (cerrado). Ecological Applications, 14, S200–S213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2006). Nitrogen cycling in tropical and temperate savannas. Biogeochemistry, 79, 209–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2009). Ecohydrological optimization of pattern and processes in water-limited ecosystems: a trade-off-based hypothesis. Water Resources Research, 45, W08407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2008). Effects of herbivory, fire and N2-fixation on nutrient limitation in a humid African savanna. Ecosystems, 11, 991–1004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2000a). Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 31, 343–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2000b). General theory of competitive coexistence in spatially-varying environments. Theoretical Population Biology, 58, 27–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2010). Frequent fire affects soil nitrogen and carbon in an African savanna by changing woody cover. Oecologia, 162, 1027–1034.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1992). Fire frequency and community heterogeneity in tallgrass prairie vegetation. Ecology, 73, 2001–2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1995). Experimental-analysis of intermediate disturbance and initial floristic composition: decoupling cause and effect. Ecology, 76, 486–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985). Graminoid responses to grazing by large herbivores: adaptations, exaptations, and interacting processes. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 852–863.Google Scholar
, , , and (2007). Grass competition induces N-2 fixation in some species of African acacia. Journal of Ecology, 95, 1123–1133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2010). Growth of N2-fixing African savanna Acacia species is constrained by below-ground competition with grass. Journal of Ecology, 98, 156–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2008). Dynamics of grazing lawn formation: an experimental test of the role of scale-dependent processes. Oikos, 117, 1444–1452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2006). Belowground bud banks increase along a precipitation gradient of the North American Great Plains: a test of the meristem limitation hypothesis. New Phytologist, 171, 81–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2007). On soil moisture-vegetation feedbacks and their possible effects on the dynamics of dryland ecosystems. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 112, G04010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1995). The ecology and epidemiology of rinderpest virus in Serengeti and Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Serengeti II: Dynamics, Management, and Conservation of an Ecosystem, 2, 485.Google Scholar
and (2013). The impacts of burning on Thomson's gazelles, Gazella thomsonii, vigilance in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology, 51, 337–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2007). Global analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus limitation of primary producers in freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology Letters, 10, 1135–1142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2005). Differences in seed biology of annual plants in arid lands: a key ingredient of the storage effect. Ecology, 86, 2998–3006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2010). The distribution of tree and grass roots in savannas in relation to soil nitrogen and water. South African Journal of Botany, 76, 517–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2013). Influence of competition and rainfall manipulation on the growth responses of savanna trees and grasses. Ecology, 94, 1155–1164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2009). Drought-induced tree death in savanna. Global Change Biology, 15, 380–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2007). Browsing lawns? Responses of Acacia nigrescens to ungulate browsing in an African savanna. Ecology, 88, 200–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). Ungulate vs. landscape control of soil C and N processes in grasslands of Yellowstone National Park. Ecology, 79, 2229–2241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1997). Alternative fire resistance strategies in savanna trees. Oecologia, 110, 576–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2006). A “large infrequent disturbance” in an East African savanna. African Journal of Ecology, 44, 458–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2011). Climatological determinants of woody cover in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 108, 4902–4907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2006). The effect of fire season, fire frequency, rainfall and management on fire intensity in savanna vegetation in South Africa. Journa of Applied Ecology, 43, 748–758.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2012). Changes of population trends and mortality patterns in response to the reintroduction of large predators: the case study of African ungulates. Acta Oecologica, 42, 16–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2012). Continental-scale variability in browser diversity is a major driver of diversity patterns in acacias across Africa. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1093–1104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2008). Do fires in savannas consume woody biomass? A comment on approaches to modeling savanna dynamics. American Naturalist, 171, 851–856.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2009). Global decline in aggregated migrations of large terrestrial mammals. Endangered Species Research, 7, 55–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1996). Effects of bison grazing, fire, and topography on floristic diversity in tallgrass prairie. Journal of Range Management, 49, 413–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2009). Pyromineralization of soil phosphorus in a South African savanna. Chemical Geology, 267, 24–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2003). Energy, water, and broad-scale geographic patterns of species richness. Ecology, 84, 3105–3117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2006). Phytomass and fire occurrence along forest–savanna transects in the Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 22, 303–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2012). Atmospheric CO2 forces abrupt vegetation shifts locally, but not globally. Nature, 488, 209–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2000). Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass–tree coexistence in savanna. Journal of Ecology, 88, 213–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2011). Is there a temporal niche separation in the leaf phenology of savanna trees and grasses?Journal of Biogeography, 38, 2165–2175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2007). Consumer versus resource control of producer diversity depends on ecosystem type and producer community structure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104, 10904–10909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2011). Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science, 334, 232–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2013). The role of fire in Miocene to Pliocene C-4 grassland and ecosystem evolution. Nature Geoscience, 6, 1027–1030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2003). The role of fire in population dynamics of woody plants. Cerrados of Brazil, 159–177.Google Scholar
, and (2003). Comparative fire ecology of tropical savanna and forest trees. Functional Ecology, 17, 720–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2009). Tree topkill, not mortality, governs the dynamics of savanna-forest boundaries under frequent fire in central Brazil. Ecology, 90, 1326–1337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2012). Ecological thresholds at the savanna–forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes. Ecology Letters, 15, 759–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2009a). Grazers, browsers, and fire influence the extent and spatial pattern of tree cover in the Serengeti. Ecological Applications, 19, 95–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al. (2009b). A disease-mediated trophic cascade in the Serengeti and its implications for ecosystem C. PLoS Biology, 7, e1000210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1947). Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science, 105, 367–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2010). Herbivores, resources and risks: alternating regulation along primary environmental gradients in savannas. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25, 119–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2011). Body size and the division of niche space: food and predation differentially shape the distribution of Serengeti grazers. Journal of Animal Ecology, 81, 201–213.Google ScholarPubMed
and (1972). Competition among fugitive species in a harlequin environment. Ecology, 53, 749–752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1990). Effects of soil resources on plant invasion and community structure in Californian serpentine grassland. Ecology, 71, 478–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1959). Homage to Santa Rosalia or why are there so many kinds of animals? American Naturalist, 93, 145–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2000). Resource heterogeneity and ungulate population dynamics. Oikos, 89, 283–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1999). Diet selection in goats: a test of intake-rate maximization. Ecology, 80, 1008–1018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2002). Ecosystem carbon loss with woody plant invasion of grasslands. Nature, 418, 623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and . (2001). Fire and grazing regulate belowground processes in tallgrass prairie. Ecology, 82, 3377–3389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005). Fire and the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands. Ecology Letters, 8, 683–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2014). Responses to fire differ between South African and North American grassland communities. Journal of Vegetation Science, 25, 793–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Detritus accumulation limits productivity of tallgrass prairie. Bioscience, 36, 662–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1998). Patterns and controls of aboveground net primary production in tallgrass prairie. In Grassland Dynamics: Long-term Ecological Research in Tallgrass Prairie, ed. , , and . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 193–221.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (1999). The keystone role of bison in North American tallgrass prairie: bison increase habitat heterogeneity and alter a broad array of plant, community, and ecosystem processes. Bioscience, 49, 39–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2001). Frequency and extent of water limitation to primary production in a mesic temperate grassland. Ecosystems, 4, 19–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2014). Interactive effects of grazing, drought, and fire on grassland communities in North America and South Africa. Ecology, 95, 98–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al. (2014). Plant community response to loss of large herbivores differs between North American and South African savanna grasslands. Ecology, 95, 808–816. DOI: 10.1890/13-1828.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2013). The effect of grassland shifts on the avifauna of a South African savanna. Ostrich, 78, 271–279.Google Scholar
and (2012). Root niche partitioning among grasses, saplings, and trees measured using a tracer technique. Oecologia, 171, 25–37.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and (2010). Allometry and spatial scales of foraging in mammalian herbivores. Ecology Letters, 13, 311–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al. (2012). Above- and belowground responses to nitrogen addition in a Chihuahuan Desert grassland. Oecologia, 169, 177–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2008). Contributions of woody and herbaceous vegetation to tropical savanna ecosystem productivity: a quasi-global estimate. Tree Physiology, 28, 451–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2013). Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna. Animal Behaviour, 85, 899–906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1967). The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species. American Naturalist, 101, 377–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1984). Grazing lawns: animals in herds, plant form, and coevolution. American Naturalist, 124, 863–886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985). Ecology of a grazing ecosystem: The Serengeti. Ecological Monographs, 55, 259–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2006). Wildlife tuberculosis in South African conservation areas: implications and challenges. Veterinary Microbiology, 112, 91–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2010). TURNER REVIEW No. 19. Savanna woody plant dynamics: the role of fire and herbivory, separately and synergistically. Australian Journal of Botany, 58, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2001). Annual rainfall, topoedaphic heterogeneity and growth of an arid land tree (Prosopis glandulosa). Journal of Arid Environments, 48, 23–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2011). Tree allometries reflect a lifetime of herbivory in an African savanna. Ecology, 92, 2310–2315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2011). Patterns and processes of global shrub expansion. Progress in Physical Geography, 35, 423–442.Google Scholar
, , and (2006). Nutrient use efficiency at ecosystem and species level in savanna areas of Central Brazil and impacts of fire. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 22, 191–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2005). Intra-annual rainfall variability and grassland productivity: can the past predict the future? Plant Ecology, 184, 65–74.Google Scholar
(1993). The influence of rainfall and grazing on the demography of some African savanna grasses: a matrix modelling approach. Journal of Applied Ecology, 30, 119–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1995). Acacia karroo invasion of grassland: environmental and biotic effects influencing seedling emergence and establishment. Oecologia, 103, 214–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2012). Heavy impact on seedlings by the impala suggests a central role in woodland dynamics. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 28, 291–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 261–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2002). Global environmental controls of diversity in large herbivores. Nature, 415, 901–904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2002). Grazing effect on diversity of annual plant communities in a semi-arid rangeland: interactions with small-scale spatial and temporal variation in primary productivity. Journal of Ecology, 90, 936–946.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1998). Functional and structural convergence of temperate grassland and shrubland ecosystems. Ecological Applications, 8, 194–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001). Prescribed fire in oak savanna: fire frequency effects on stand structure and dynamics. Ecological Applications, 11, 914–927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2009). Drought sensitivity of the Amazon Rainforest. Science, 323, 1344–1347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1966). Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of concepts. American Naturalist, 100, 33–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1993). Herbivore population crashes and woodland structure in East Africa. Journal of Ecology, 81, 305–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). Reversal of grazing impact on plant species richness in nutrient-poor vs. nutrient-rich ecosystems. Ecology, 79, 2581–2592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1997). Nitrogen mineralization and productivity in 50 hardwood and conifer stands on diverse soils. Ecology, 78, 335–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2001). Fire and vegetation effects on productivity and nitrogen cycling across a forest-grassland continuum. Ecology, 82, 1703–1719.Google Scholar
, and (2013). Precipitation legacies in desert grassland primary production occur through previous-year tiller density. Ecology, 94, 435–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2008). Savanna tree density, herbivores, and the herbaceous community: bottom-up vs. top-down effects. Ecology, 89, 2228–2238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2009). Local versus landscape-scale effects of savanna trees on grasses. Journal of Ecology, 97, 1337–1345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and ( 2010). Experimental investigation of fire ecology in the C3 and C4 subspecies of Alloteropsis semialata. Journal of Ecology, 98, 1196–1203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2004). Wolves and the ecology of fear: can predation risk structure ecosystems? BioScience, 54, 755–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2012). The partitioning of water uptake between growth forms in a Neotropical savanna: do herbs exploit a third water source niche? Plant Biology, 15, 84–92.Google Scholar
, , and (1988). Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States. Ecology, 69, 40–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2012). Legacies of precipitation fluctuations on primary production: theory and data synthesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 367, 3135–3144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2004). Tree-grass coexistence in savannas revisited – insights from an examination of assumptions and mechanisms invoked in existing models. Ecology Letters, 7, 480–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2005). Determinants of woody cover in African savannas. Nature, 438, 846–849.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2009). Impacts of climate change on the vegetation of Africa: an adaptive dynamic vegetation modelling approach. Global Change Biology, 15, 2224–2246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Tree-grass interactions in savannas. Annual Review of Ecological Systems, 28, 517–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1993). An African Savanna: Synthesis of the Nylsvley Study.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2009). Juggling carbon: allocation patterns of a dominant tree in a fire-prone savanna. Oecologia, 160, 235–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2010). Allometric scaling predicts preferences for burned patches in a guild of East African grazers. Ecology, 91, 2898–2907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2006). Establishment of broad-leaved thickets in Serengeti, Tanzania: the influence of fire, browsers, grass competition, and elephants. Biotropica, 38, 599–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2003). Patterns of predation in a diverse predator–prey system. Nature, 425, 288–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2010). Effects of fire on woody vegetation structure in African savanna. Ecological Applications, 20, 1865–1875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2013). Rainfall, geology and landscape position generate large-scale spatiotemporal fire pattern heterogeneity in an African savanna. Ecography, 36, 447–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2012). Long-term effects of fire frequency and season on herbaceous vegetation in savannas of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal of Plant Ecology, 6, 71–83.Google Scholar
and (2014). Is there a ‘browse trap’? Dynamics of herbivore impacts on trees and grasses in an African savanna. Journal of Ecology, 102, 595–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2012). Integrating theoretical climate and fire effects on savanna and forest systems. American Naturalist, 180, 211–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2009). Browsing and fire interact to suppress tree density in an African savanna. Ecological Applications, 19, 1909–1919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2011a). The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science, 334, 230–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2011b). Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: rainfall and fire constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states. Ecology, 92, 1063–1072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2011c). History matters: tree establishment variability and species turnover in an African savanna. Ecosphere, 2, art49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2012). Top-down determinants of niche structure and adaptation among African acacias. Ecology Letters, 15, 673–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2001). Savanna-forest hysteresis in the tropics. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 10, 369–378.Google Scholar
and (1994). The maintenance of species richness in plant communities. In Species Diversity in Ecological Communities, ed. and . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 13–25.Google Scholar
, and (1996). Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland eco-systems. Nature, 379, 718–720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Effect of fire intensity on the grass and bush components of the Eastern Cape thornveld. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa, 3, 37–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al. (2013). Soil ingestion, nutrition and the seasonality of anthrax in herbivores of Etosha National Park. Ecosphere, 4, art13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2011). Savanna soil fertility limits growth but not survival of tropical forest tree seedlings. Plant Soil, 349, 341–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2012). Environmental factors determining the phylogenetic structure of C4 grass communities. Journal of Biogeography, 39, 232–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2012). The savanna-grassland “treeline”: why don't savanna trees occur in upland grasslands?Journal of Ecology, 100, 381–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and . (2008). Ecological engineering by a mega-grazer: White rhino impacts on a South African savanna. Ecosystems, 11, 101–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1997). Continuous and episodic components of demographic change in arid zone shrubs: models of two Eremophila species from Western Australia compared with published data on other species. Journal of Ecology, 85, 833–846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2013). Demography and growth of subadult savanna trees: interactions of life history, size, fire season, and grassy understory. Ecological Monographs, 83, 67–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2004). Minimum recruitment frequency in plants with episodic recruitment. Oecologia, 141, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (1996). Variation in the composition and structure of tropical savannas as a function of rainfall and soil texture along a large-scale climatic gradient in the Northern Territory, Australia. Journal of Biogeography, 23, 747–756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005). Effects of grazing exclusion on rangeland vegetation and soils, East Central Idaho. Western North American Naturalist, 65, 91–102.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2013). Effects of mammalian herbivore declines on plant communities: observations and experiments in an African savanna. Journal of Ecology, 101, 1030–1041.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1994). Natural die-offs of large mammals: implications for conservation. Conservation Biology, 8, 410–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 2
- Cited by