Exclusion from Civil Service

LOOKING BACK IN 1848, Ludwig Philippson described the situation of Jewish university graduates in the pre-1848 era thus: “All the gates leading into the temple of academic scholarship and intellectual development had been opened to the Jews, but all the gates leading out of this temple into a life of flourishing activity and joyous recognition were sealed, and firmly so.” This complaint referred to the exclusion of Jews from civil service positions, through which the integration of the Jewish cultural elite in the state and society was hindered, even though those affected strenuously pursued it. Already in the pre-1848 era, the lack of professional emancipation created a situation in which Jewish intellectuals by and large could only work in the few professions that were open to them. Although Jews were licensed everywhere as doctors and were also admitted to the attorneyship and to the privatdozentship in some states, they remained excluded from higher civil service positions in the judiciary, schools, universities, and the medical administration. Even the Electorate of Hesse's Jewish Law of 1833, which conceded civil service positions, had no practical consequences for university graduates. The public and individual struggle of those affected for the political right denied them remained futile until 1848 in all states. Repeatedly denied the Habilitation and the attorneyship, Gabriel Riesser felt called to a heightened struggle for emancipation by his professional conditions, whereas many of his fellow believers, who were materially less independent, drew the consequence of converting to Christianity. Not admitting Jews to civil service positions was—as we have seen—a very successful means of “proselytizing” Jewish intellectuals, who were often quite alienated from their ancestral religion.

Jewish university graduates faced the severest professional restrictions in Prussia and Bavaria. The Prussian Emancipation Edict of 1812 permitted Jews to hold academic teaching and school offices “for which they are qualified” in paragraph eight and added in paragraph nine: “We reserve the right to determine by law to what extent Jews may be admitted to other public services and civil service positions at a later date.” But the additional legislation that was announced here never appeared and even the rights granted in paragraph eight remained almost without any practical significance owing to the ensuing reaction.