Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T17:56:34.549Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

35 - Individual, Family, Neighborhood, and Regional Poverty/Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Violence in the Lives of Children and Adolescents: Considering the Global North and South

from Part IV - Contextual Factors for Violence and Aggression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 July 2018

By
Holly Foster  and
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
Edited by
Alexander T. Vazsonyi ,
Daniel J. Flannery  and
Matt DeLisi
Alexander T. Vazsonyi
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky
Daniel J. Flannery
Affiliation:
Case Western Reserve University, Ohio
Matt DeLisi
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and Aggression , pp. 654 - 686
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agnew, R. (2012). Dire Forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Journal of Theoretical Criminology, 16, 21–42.Google Scholar
Akande, A. (2000). Effects of exposure to violence and poverty on young children: The Southern African context. Early Child Development and Care, 163, 61–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aneshensel, C. S. (1992). Social stress: Theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 15–38.Google Scholar
Benjet, C. (2010). Childhood adversities of populations living in low-income countries: Prevalence, characteristics, and mental health consequences. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23, 356–362.Google Scholar
Benson, M. L., Fox, G. L., DeMaris, A., & Van Wyck, J. (2000). Violence in families: The intersection of race, poverty, and community context. In Fox, G. L. & Benson, M. L. (Eds), Families, crime, and criminal justice (pp. 91–109). New York: JAI Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, L. (1992). Dating violence among high school students. Social Work, 37, 21–27.Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S. & Khan, K. T. (2008). The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: Protective processes and pathways to resilience. International Review of Psychiatry, 20, 317–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, I. I., Williams, T. P., Brennan, R. T., Whitfield, T. H., de la Soudiere, M., … & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Sierra Leone’s former child soldiers: A follow-up study of psychosocial adjustment and community reintegration. Child Development, 81, 1077–1095.Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, I., Williams, T. P., Meyers-Ohki, S.E., Rubin-Smith, J. E., Annan, J., & Kohrt, B. A. (2013). Research review: Psychosocial adjustment and mental health in former child soldiers – a systemic review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 54, 17–36.Google Scholar
Black, D. A., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 121–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogost, I. (2017). Houston’s Flood is a Design Problem. The Atlantic, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2017/08/why-cities-flood/538251/.Google Scholar
Borba, C. P. C., Ng, L. C., Stevenson, A., Vesga-Lopez, O., Harris, B. L., Parnarouskis, L., … & Henderson, D. C. (2016). A mental health needs assessment of children and adolescents in post-conflict Liberia: Results from a quantitative key-informant survey. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 9, 56–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breen, A., Daniels, K., & Tomlinson, M. (2015 ). Children’s experiences of corporal punishment: A qualitative study in an urban township of South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 131–139.Google Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M., Ford, J. D., Fraleigh, J. D., McCarthy, K., & Carter, A. S. (2010). Prevalence of exposure to potentially traumatic events in a healthy birth cohort of very young children in the Northeastern United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 725–733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723–742.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J. & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. Future of Children, 7(2), 55–71.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G., & Aber, J. L. (Eds) (1997). Neighborhood poverty: Context and consequences for children (Vol. 1). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P. K., & Sealand, N. (1993). Do neighborhoods influence child and adolescent development? American Journal of Sociology, 99, 353–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., & Maritato, N. (1997). Poor families, poor outcomes: The well-being of children and youth. In Duncan, G. J. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 1–17). New York; Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., & Rebello Britto, P. (1999). Are socioeconomic gradients for children similar to those for adults? Achievement and health of children in the United States. In Keating, D. P. & Hertzman, C. (Eds), Developmental health and the wealth of nations: Social, biological, and educational dynamics (pp. 94–124). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Schneider, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2013). The Great Recession and risk for child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 10, 721–890.Google Scholar
Buka, S. L., Stichick, T. L., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. (2001). Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 298–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children’s development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118.Google Scholar
Collishaw, S., Gardner, F., Aber, J. L., & Cluver, L. (2016). Predictors of mental health resilience in children who have been parentally bereaved by AIDS in Urban South Africa. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 719–730.Google Scholar
Conrad-Hiebner, A. & Scanlon, E. (2015). The economic conditions of child physical abuse: A call for national research, policy and practice agenda. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 96, 59–66.Google Scholar
Coulton, C. J., Korbin, J. E., & Su, M. (1999). Neighborhoods and child maltreatment: A multi-level study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 1019–1040.Google Scholar
Crouch, J. L., Hanson, R. F., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2000). Income, race/ethnicity, and exposure to violence in youth: Results from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 625–641.Google Scholar
Crutchfield, R. D. & Wadsworth, T. (2003). Poverty and violence. In Heitmeyer, W. & Hagan, J. (Eds), International handbook of violence research (pp. 67–82). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Socialization mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and child conduct problems. Child Development, 65, 649–665.Google Scholar
Drake, B. & Jonson-Reid, M. (2014). Poverty and child maltreatment. InKorbin, J. E. and Krugman, R. D. (Eds), Handbook of Child Maltreatment, Child Maltreatment (Vol. 2, pp. 131–148). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Duncan, G. J. & Aber, J. L. (1997). Neighborhood models and measures. In Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J. & Aber, J. L. (Eds), Neighborhood poverty. Volume I: Context and consequences for children (pp. 62–78). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Duncan, G. J. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Duncan, G. J. & Moscow, L. (1997). Longitudinal indicators of children’s poverty and dependence. In Hauser, R. M., Brown, B. V., & Prosser, W. R. (Eds), Indicators of children’s well-being (pp. 258–278). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Duncan, G. J., Yeung, W. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Smith, J. R. (1998). How much does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children? American Sociological Review, 63, 406–423.Google Scholar
Earls, F. & Carlson, M.. (2001). The social ecology of child health and well-being. Annual Review of Public Health, 22, 143–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92.Google Scholar
Evans-Campbell, T., Lincoln, K. D., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007). Race and mental health: past debates, new opportunities. In Avison, W. R., McLeod, J. D., & Pescosolido, B. A. (Eds), Mental Health, Social Mirror (pp. 169–189). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Fincham, D. S., Altes, L. K., Stein, D. J., & Seedat, S. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adolescents: Risk factors versus resilience moderation. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50, 193–199.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Children as victims of violence: A national survey. Pediatrics, 94, 413–420.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. (2005). The Victimization of Children and Youth: A Comprehensive, National Survey. Child Maltreatment, 10, 5–25.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Omrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Poly-victimization: A neglected component of child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 7–26.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime and abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatrics 169: 746–754.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015) JAMA Pediatrics Supplementary Online Content Appendix 1. 2013 Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire Used in NatSCEV 2014. Retrieved November 3, 2016 from http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2344705.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, K. M. & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430.Google Scholar
Foster, H. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). Toward a stress process model of children’s exposure to physical family and community violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 71–94.Google Scholar
Foster, H. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2015). Children’s exposure to community and war violence and mental health in four African countries. Social Science & Medicine, 146, 292–299.Google Scholar
Foster, H., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Martin, A. (2007). Poverty/ socio-economic status and exposure to violence in the lives of children and adolescents. In Flannery, D., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Waldman, I. D. (Eds), Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior (pp. 664–687). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Garbarino, J. (1977). The human ecology of child maltreatment: A conceptual model for research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 39, 721–735.Google Scholar
Garbarino, J. & Bradshaw, C.. (2003). Violence against children. In Heitmeyer, W. & Hagan, J. (Eds), International handbook of violence research (pp. 719–735). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Garbarino, J. & Sherman, D. (1980). High-risk neighborhoods and high-risk families: The human ecology of child maltreatment. Child Development, 51, 188–198.Google Scholar
Gelles, R. J. (1992). Poverty and violence toward children. American Behavioral Scientist, 35, 258–274.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579.Google Scholar
Gettleman, J. (2017). Drought and War Heighten Threat Not Just 1 famine but 4. New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2017/03/27/world/africa/famine-somalia-nigeria-south-sudan-yemen-water.html.Google Scholar
Gladstein, J., Rusonis, E. J. S., & Heald, F. P. (1992). A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 275–280.Google Scholar
Hagan, J. & Foster, H. (2001). Youth violence and the end of adolescence. American Sociological Review, 66, 874–899.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC). (2014). New directions in child abuse and neglect research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Jain, S., Buka, S. L., Subramanian, S. V., & Molnar, B. E. (2012). Protective factors for youth exposed to violence: Role of developmental assets in building emotional resilience. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 107–129.Google Scholar
Kaminer, D., Hardy, A., Heath, K., Mosdell, J., & Bawa, U. (2013). Gender patterns in the contribution of different types of violence to posttraumatic stress among South African urban youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 320–330.Google Scholar
Keenan, H. T., Runyan, D. K., Marshall, S. W., Nocera, M. A., Merten, D. F., & Sinal, S. H. (2003). A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 621–626.Google Scholar
Leventhal, T. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, M. & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children’s symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 235–257.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2011). Who spanks children and toddlers? Evidence from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study. Child and Youth Services Review, 33, 1364–1373.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2012). Corporal punishment and child behavioral and cognitive outcomes through 5 years of age: Evidence from a contemporary urban birth cohort study. Infant and Child Development, 21, 3–33.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2013). Spanking and child development across the first decade of life. Pediatrics, 132, e1118–e1125.Google Scholar
MacMillan, H., Tanaka, M., Duku, E., Vaillancourt, T., & Boyle, M. H. (2013). Child physical and sexual abuse in a community sample of young adults: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 14–21.Google Scholar
MacMillan, R. (2001). Violence and the life course: The consequences of victimization for personal and social development. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 1–22.Google Scholar
MacMillan, R. & Hagan, J. (2004). Violence in the transition to adulthood: Adolescent victimization, education, and socioeconomic attainment in later life. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14, 127–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malik, S., Sorenson, S. B., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1997). Community and Dating Violence Among Adolescents: Perpetration and Victimization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 291–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G. & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445–479.Google Scholar
Margolin, G. & Gordis, E. B. (2004). Children’s exposure to violence in the family and community. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 152–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, L., Revington, N., & Seedat, S. (2013). The 39-item Child Exposure to Community Violence (CECV) scale: Exploratory factor analysis and relationship to PTSD symptomatology in trauma-exposed children and adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 599–608.Google Scholar
McLeod, J. D. & Kaiser, K. (2004). Childhood emotional and behavioral problems and educational attainment. American Sociological Review, 69, 636–658.Google Scholar
McLeod, J. D. & Shanahan, M. J. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and children’s mental health. American Sociological Review, 58, 351–366.Google Scholar
Meink, F., Cluver, L. D., & Boyes, M. E. (2015). Household illness, poverty and physical and emotional abuse victimization: findings from South Africa’s first prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health, 15, 444. doi: 10.1186/s12899-015-1792-4.Google Scholar
Meink, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Loening-Voysey, H. (2016). Physical, emotional, and sexual adolescent abuse victimization in South Africa: prevalence, incidence, perpetrators and locations. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 70, 910–916.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meinck, F, Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: a review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 16, 81–107.Google Scholar
Meinck, F., Cluver, L., Boyes, M. E., & Ndhlovu, L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and emotional abuse victimisation amongst vulnerable children in South Africa. Child Abuse Review, 24, 182–197.Google Scholar
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2003). Social causes of psychological distress (2nd ed.). New York: Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Molnar, B. E., Buka, S. L., Brennan, R. T., Holton, J. K., & Earls, F. (2003). A multilevel study of neighborhoods and parent-to-child physical aggression: Results from the Project for Human Development in Chicago neighborhoods. Child Maltreatment, 8, 84–97.Google Scholar
Morantz, G., Cole, D., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2013). Child abuse and neglect among orphaned children and youth living in extended families in sub-Saharan Africa: What have we learned from qualitative inquiry? Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8, 338–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neugebauer, R., Fisher, P. W., Turner, J. B., Yamabe, S., Sarsfield, J. A., & Stehling-Ariza, T. (2009). Post-traumatic stress reactions among Rwandan children and adolescents in the early aftermath of genocide. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 1033–1045.Google Scholar
Nichols, J., Embleton, L., Mwangi, A., Morantz, G., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., … & Braistein, P. (2014). Physical and sexual abuse in orphaned compared to non-orphaned children in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 304–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ng, L. C., Ahishakiye, N., Miller, D. E., & Meyerowitz, B. E. (2015). Life after genocide: mental health, education, and social support among orphaned survivors. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 4, 83–97.Google Scholar
Odejide, A. O. (2006). Status of Drug Use/Abuse in Africa: A Review. International Journal of Mental Health Addiction, 4, 87–102.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, D. A., Roberts, W. C., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2011). Community violence exposure and post-traumatic stress reactions among Gambian youth: The moderating role of positive school climate. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46, 59–67.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, D. A. & Roberts, W. C. (2015). Experiences of violence, perceptions of neighborhood, and psychosocial adjustment among West African Refugee youth. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 4, 1–18.Google Scholar
O’Keefe, M. & Sela-Amit, M. (1997). An examination of the effects of race/ethnicity and social class on adolescents’ exposure to violence. Journal of Social Services Research, 22, 53–71.Google Scholar
Osofsky, J. D. (1999). The impact of violence on children. Future of Children, 9(3), 33–49.Google Scholar
Otwombe, K. N., Dietrich, J., Sikkema, K. J., Coetzee, J., Hopkins, K. L., Laher, F., & Gray, G. E. (2015). Exposure to and experiences of violence among adolescents in lower socio-economic groups in Johannesburg, South Africa. BMC Public Health, 15, 450. doi: 10.1186/s12899-015-1780-8.Google Scholar
Overpeck, M. D., Brenner, R. A., Trumble, A. C., Trifiletti, L. B., & Berendes, H. W. (1998). Risk factors for infant homicide in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine, 339, 1211–1216.Google Scholar
Overstreet, S. (2000). Exposure to community violence: Defining the problem and understanding the consequences. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 7–25.Google Scholar
Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241–256.Google Scholar
Pearlin, L. I., Leiberman, M. A., Menaghan, E. G., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 337–356.Google Scholar
Reider, H. & Elbert, T. (2013). The relationship between organized violence, family violence and mental health: findings from a community-based survey in Muhanga, Southern Rwanda. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4, 21329. doi: 10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.21329.Google Scholar
Richter, L. M. & Dawes, A. R. L. (2008). Child abuse in South Africa: Rights and wrongs. Child Abuse Review, 17, 79–93.Google Scholar
Richters, J. & Martinez, P. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56, 7–21.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1989). Pathways from childhood to adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 23–51.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J. (1997). The embeddedness of child and adolescent development: A community-level perspective on urban violence. In McCord, J. (Ed.), Violence in childhood in the inner city (pp. 31–77). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J. & Laub, J. H. 1993. Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J. & Wilson, W. J. (1995). Toward a theory of race, crime, and urban inequality. In Hagan, J. & Peterson, R. (Eds), Crime and inequality (pp. 37–56). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, W., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2017). The Great Recession and risk for child abuse and neglect. Children and Youth Services Review, 72, 71–81.Google Scholar
Schwab-Stone, M. D., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., et al. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343–1352.Google Scholar
Seedat, S., Nyami, F., Njenga, F., Vythlingum, B., & Stein, D. J. (2004). Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress symptoms in urban African schools. Survey in Cape Town and Nairobi. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 169–175.Google Scholar
Selner-O’Hagan, M. B., Kindlon, D. J., Buka, S. L., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. J. (1998). Assessing exposure to violence in urban youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 215–224.Google Scholar
Sheidow, A. J., Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., & Henry, D. B. (2001). Family and community characteristics: Risk factors for violence exposure in inner-city youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 345–360.Google Scholar
Sherr, L., Hensels, I. S., Skeen, S., Tomlinson, M., Roberts, K. J., & Macedo, A. (2016). Exposure to violence predicts poor educational outcomes in young children in South Africa and Malawi. International Health, 8, 36–43.Google ScholarPubMed
Shields, N. S., Nadasen, K., & Pierce, L. (2009). Posttraumatic stress symptoms as a mediating factor on the effects of exposure to community violence among children in Cape Town, South Africa. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1192–1208.Google Scholar
Shields, N., Nadasen, K., & Pierce, L. (2013). Community violence and psychological distress in South African and U.S. Children. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 2, 286–300.Google Scholar
Smith, J. R. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Correlates and consequences of harsh discipline for young children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151, 777–786.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 75–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, R. J., Wheaton, B., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). The epidemiology of social stress. American Sociological Review, 60, 104–125.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2010). Children and AIDS: Fifth stocktaking report, 2010. New York: UNICEF.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2013). Towards an AIDS-Free Generation – Children and AIDS: Sixth Stocktaking Report, 2013. New York: UNICEF.Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. (2005). How the Census Bureau measures poverty. Retrieved April 29, 2005 from www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/povdef.html.Google Scholar
Vacha, E. F. & McLaughlin, T. F. (2004). Risky firearms behavior in low-income families of elementary school children: The impact of poverty, fear of crime, and crime victimization in keeping and storing firearms. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 175–184.Google Scholar
Viola, T. W., Salum, G. A., Kluwe-Schiavon, B., Sanvicente-Viera, B., Levandowski, M. L., & Grassi-Oliveira, R. (2016). The influence of geographical and economic factors in estimates of childhood abuse and neglect using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A worldwide meta-regression analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 1–11.Google Scholar
Ward, C. L., Martin, E., Theron, C., & Distiller, G. B. (2007). Factors affecting resilience in children exposed to violence. South African Journal of Psychology, 37, 165–187.Google Scholar
Wheaton, B., Young, M., Montazer, S., & Stuart-Lahman, K. (2013). Social stress in the twenty-first century. In Aneshensel, C. S., Phelan, J. C., & Bierman, A. (Eds), Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, Second Edition (pp. 299–323). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Wildeman, C., Emanuel, N., Leventhal, J. M., Putnam-Hornstein, E., Waldfogel, J., & Lee, H. (2014). The prevalence of confirmed maltreatment among US children, 2004 to 2011. JAMA Pediatrics, 168, 706–713.Google Scholar
Willms, J. D. (2002). Socioeconomic gradients for childhood vulnerability. In Willms, J. D. (Ed.), Vulnerable children: Findings from Canada’s National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (pp. 71–102). Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press.Google Scholar
Wintemute, G. (2000). Guns and gun violence. In Blumstein, A. & Wallman, J. (Eds), The crime drop in America (pp. 45–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wu, S. S., Ma, C. X., Carter, R. L., Ariet, M., Feaver, E. A., Resnick, M. B., & Roth, J. (2003). Risk factors for infant maltreatment: A population-based study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 1253–1264.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×