Bader, M. and Meng, M. 1999. “Subject-object ambiguities in German embedded clauses: An across-the-board comparison,” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 28: 121–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baten, K. 2011. “Processability Theory and German case acquisition,” Language Learning 61: 405–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Becker, A. and Carroll, M. 1997. The Acquisition of Spatial Relations in a Second Language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Bergen, G. van and Flecken, M. 2017. “Putting things in new places: Linguistic experience modulates the predictive power of placement verb semantics,” Journal of Memory and Language 92: 26–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Birdsong, D. 1992. “Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition,” Language 68: 706–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bley-Vroman, R. 1990. “The logical problem of foreign language learning,” Linguistic Analysis 20: 3–49.Google Scholar

Blom, E. 2010. “Effects of input on the early grammatical development of bilingual children,” International Journal of Bilingualism 14: 442–446.Google Scholar

Bobb, S., Kroll, J., and Jackson, C. 2015. “Lexical constraints in second language learning: Evidence on grammatical gender in German,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 18: 502–523.Google Scholar

Bohnacker, U. 2006. “When Swedes begin to learn German: From V2 to V2,” Second Language Research 22: 443–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bongaerts, T., Mennen, S., and van der Slik, F. 2000. “Authenticity of pronunciation in naturalistic second language acquisition: The case of very advanced learners of Dutch as a second language,” Studia Linguistica 545: 298–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bordag, D., Opitz, A. and Pechmann, T. 2006. “Gender processing in L1 and L2: The role of noun termination,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 32: 1090–1101.Google Scholar

Bordag, D. and Pechmann, T. 2007. “Factors influencing L2 gender processing,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10: 299–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bordag, D. and Pechmann, T. 2018. “Genuserwerb und -verarbeitung in einer L2.” In Schimke, S. and Hopp, H. (eds.), Sprachverarbeitung im Zweitspracherwerb. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 75–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clahsen, H. 1990. “The comparative study of first and second language development,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12: 135–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clahsen, H. and Felser, C. 2006. “Grammatical processing in language learners,” Applied Psycholinguistics 27: 3–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clahsen, H., Meisel, J., and Pienemann, M. 1983. Deutsch als Zweitsprache. Der Spracherwerb ausländischer Arbeiter. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar

Clahsen, H. and Muysken, P. 1986. “The availability of universal grammar to adult and child learners – a study of the acquisition of German word order,” Second Language Research 2: 93–118.Google Scholar

Clahsen, H. and Penke, M. 1992. “The acquisition of agreement morphology and its syntactic consequences: New evidence on German child language from the Simone-corpus.” In Meisel, J. (ed.), The Acquisition of Verb Placement. Dordrecht: Kluwer: 181–223.Google Scholar

Chilla, S., Rothweiler, M., and Babur, E. 2010. Kindliche Mehrsprachigkeit. Grundlagen, Störungen, Diagnostik. Munich: Reinhardt.Google Scholar

Craats, I. van de 2009. “The role of is in the acquisition of finiteness by adult Turkish learners of Dutch,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31: 59–92.Google Scholar

Craats, I. van de and van Hoet, R. 2010. “Dummy auxiliaries in the second language acquisition of Moroccan learners of Dutch: Form and function,” Second Language Research 26: 473–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cunnings, I. 2017. “Parsing and working memory in bilingual sentence processing,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20: 659–678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dekydtspotter, L., Schwartz, B., and Sprouse, R. 2006. “The comparative fallacy in L2 processing research.” In O’Brien, M., Shea, C., and Archibald, J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2006). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project: 33–40.Google Scholar

Dell, G. and Chang, F. 2014. “The P-chain: relating sentence production and its disorders to comprehension and acquisition,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 369: 20120394. http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0394.Google Scholar

Diehl, E., Christen, H., and Leuenberger, S. 2000. Grammatikunterricht: Alles für der Katz? Untersuchungen zum Zweitsprachenerwerb Deutsch. Tübingen: Niemeyer.Google Scholar

Dietrich, R., Klein, W., and Noyau, C. 1995. The Acquisition of Temporality in a Second Language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dimroth, C. 2013. “Learner varieties.” In A. Carol (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. DOI:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dimroth, C. and Starren, M. (eds.) 2003. Information Structure and the Dynamics of Language Acquisition. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Eckerth, J., Schramm, K., and Tschirner, E. 2009. “Review of recent research (2002–2008) on applied linguistics and language teaching with specific reference to L2 German (part 1),” Language Teaching 42: 41–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fowler, C. 2017. Cross-language Interaction During Language Production among L1 German-L2 Italian Bilinguals. Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar

Gass, S. 2013. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Gawlitzek-Maiwald, I. and Tracy, R. 1996. “Bilingual bootstrapping,” Linguistics 34: 901–926.Google Scholar

Gerth, S., Otto, C., Felser, C., and Nam, Y. 2017. “Strength of garden-path effects in native and non-native speakers’ processing of object-subject ambiguities,” International Journal of Bilingualism 21: 125–144.Google Scholar

Glahn, E., Håkansson, G., Hammarberg, B., Holmen, A., Hvenekilde, A., and Lund, K. 2001. “Processability in Scandinavian second language acquisition,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 23: 389–416.Google Scholar

Grosjean, F. 1989. “Neurolinguists beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person,” Brain and Language 36: 3–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gut, U. 2009. Non-Native Speech: A Corpus-Based Analysis of the Phonetic and Phonological Properties of L2 English and L2 German. New York and Frankfurt: Peter Lang Verlag.Google Scholar

Haberzettl, S. 2005. Der Erwerb der Verbstellungsregeln in der Zweitsprache Deutsch durch Kinder mit russischer und türkischer Muttersprache. Tübingen: Niemeyer.Google Scholar

Håkansson, G. and Norrby, C. 2010. “Environmental influence on language acquisition: Comparing second and foreign language acquisition of Swedish,” Language Learning 60: 628–650.Google Scholar

Håkansson, G., Pienemann, M., and Sayehli, S. 2002. “Transfer and typological proximity in the context of second language processing,” Second Language Research 18: 250–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Havik, E., Roberts, L., van Hout, R., Schreuder, R., and Haverkort, M. 2009. “Processing subject-object ambiguities in the L2: A self-paced reading study with German L2 learners of Dutch,” Language Learning 59: 73–112.Google Scholar

Hendricks, H. (ed.) 2005. The Structure of Learner Varieties. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Henry, N. 2015. Morphosyntactic Processing, Cue Interaction, and the Effects of Instruction: An Investigation of Processing Instruction and the Acquisition of Case Marking in L2 German. Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar

Henry, N., Culman, H., and van Patten, B. 2009. “More on the effects of explicit information in instructed SLA,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31: 559–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hopp, H. 2006. “Syntactic features and reanalysis in near-native processing,” Second Language Research 22: 369–397.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2009. “The syntax-discourse interface in near-native L2 acquisition: Off-line and online performance,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12: 463–483.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2010. “Ultimate attainment in L2 inflection: Performance similarities between non-native and native speakers,” Lingua 120: 901–931.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2013. “Grammatical gender in adult L2 acquisition: Relations between lexical and syntactic variability,” Second Language Research 29: 33–56.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2015. “Semantics and morphosyntax in L2 predictive sentence processing,” International Review of Applied Linguistics 53: 277–306.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2016. “Learning (not) to predict: Grammatical gender processing in second language acquisition,” Second Language Research 32: 277–307.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. 2018. “Kasus- und Genusverarbeitung des Deutschen im Satzkontext.” In Schimke, S. and Hopp, H. (eds.), Sprachverarbeitung im Zweitspracherwerb. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 141–168.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. and Lemmerth, N. 2016. “Lexical and syntactic congruency in L2 predictive gender processing,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Advance online publication. DOI:10.1017/S0272263116000437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Huettig, F. 2015. “Four central questions about prediction in language processing,” Brain Research 1626: 118–135.Google Scholar

Jackson, C. 2007. “The use and non-use of semantic information, word order, and case markings during comprehension by L2 learners of German,” Modern Language Journal 91: 418–432.Google Scholar

Jackson, C. 2008. “Proficiency level and the interaction of lexical and morphosyntactic information during L2 sentence processing,” Language Learning 58: 875–909.Google Scholar

Jackson, C. and Bobb, S. 2009. “The processing and comprehension of wh-questions among second language speakers of German,” Applied Psycholinguistics 30: 630–636.Google Scholar

Jackson, C. and Dussias, P. 2009. “Cross-linguistic differences and their impact on L2 sentence processing,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12: 65–82.Google Scholar

Jackson, C., Dussias, P., and Hristova, A. 2012. “Using eye-tracking to study on-line processing among intermediate L2 learners of German,” International Review of Applied Linguistics 50: 101–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jackson, C., Johnson-Fowler, C., Gavin, B., and Henry, N. 2018. “Zusammenhänge zwischen der Sprachverarbeitung und dem Erwerb neuer Strukturen bei erwachsenen L2-Lernern.” In Schimke, S. and Hopp, H. (eds.), Sprachverarbeitung im Zweitspracherwerb. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 299–324.Google Scholar

Jackson, C. and Roberts, L. 2010. “Animacy affects the processing of subject-object ambiguities in the second language: Evidence from self-paced reading with German second language learners of Dutch,” Applied Psycholinguistics 31: 671–691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jansen, L. 2008. “Acquisition of German word order in tutored learners: A cross-sectional study in a wider theoretical context,” Language Learning 58: 185–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jordens, P. 2001. “Constraints on the shape of second language learner varieties,” International Review of Applied Linguistics 39: 51–74.Google Scholar

Juffs, A. and Rodriguez, G. 2015. Second Language Sentence Processing. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Kaan, E. 2014. “Predictive sentence processing in L2 and L1: What is different?” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 4: 257–282.Google Scholar

Kaplan, R. and Bresnan, J. 1982. “Lexical-functional grammar: A formal system for grammatical representation.” In Bresnan, J. (ed.), The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press: 173–281.Google Scholar

Kempe, V. and MacWhinney, B. 1998. “The acquisition of case marking by adult learners of Russian and German,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20: 543–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kempen, G. and Hoenkamp, E. 1987. “An incremental procedural grammar for sentence formulation,” Cognitive Science 11: 201–258.Google Scholar

Klassen, R. 2016. “The representation of asymmetric grammatical gender systems in the bilingual mental lexicon,” Probus 28: 9–28.Google Scholar

Klein, W. and Dittmar, N. 1979. Developing Grammars: The Acquisition of German Syntax by Foreign Workers. Berlin: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Klein, W. and Dimroth, C. 2009. “Untutored second language acquisition.” In Bhatia, T. and Ritchie, W. (eds.), The New Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Bingley: Emerald: 503–522.Google Scholar

Klein, W. and Perdue, C. 1992. Utterance Structure. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Klein, W. and Perdue, C. 1997. “The Basic Variety (or couldn’t natural languages be simpler?)” Second Language Research 13: 301–347.Google Scholar

Köpcke, K-M. and Zubin, D. 1984. “Sechs Prinzipien für die Genuszuweisung im Deutschen: Ein Beitrag zur natürlichen Klassifikation,” Linguistische Berichte 93: 26–50.Google Scholar

Lemhöfer, K., Schriefers, H., and Indefrey, P. 2014. “Idiosyncratic genders: Syntactic processing in second language comprehension uses subjective feature representations,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 26: 1428–1444.Google Scholar

Lemhöfer, K., Spalek, K., and Schriefers, H. 2008. “Cross-language effects on grammatical gender in bilingual word recognition and production,” Journal of Memory and Language 59: 312–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Levelt, W. 1989. Speaking: From Intention to Articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Levelt, W., Roelofs, A., and Meyer, A. 1999. “A theory of lexical access in speech production,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22: 1–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

MacWhinney, B. 2008. “A unified model.” In Robinson, P. and Ellis, N. C. (eds.), Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge: 341–371.Google Scholar

McDonald, J. 1987. “Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Dutch,” Applied Psycholinguistics 4: 379–413.Google Scholar

Meisel, J. 1997. “The L2 Basic Variety as an I language,” Second Language Research 13: 374–385.Google Scholar

Meisel, J., Clahsen, H., and Pienemann, M. 1981. “On determining developmental stages in natural second language acquisition,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 3: 109–135.Google Scholar

Meulman, N., Stowe, L., Sprenger, S., Bresser, M., and Schmid, M. 2014. “An ERP study on L2 syntax processing: When do learners fail?” Frontiers in Psychology 55: 1072.Google Scholar

Meulman, N., Wieling, M., Sprenger, S., Stowe, L., and Schmid, M. 2015. “Age effects in L2 grammar processing as revealed by ERPs and how (not) to study them,” PlosONE 10: e0143328.Google Scholar

Mitchell, R., Myles, F., and Marsden, E. 2013. Second Language Learning Theories. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Morgan-Short, K. 2014. “Electrophysiological approaches to studying second language acquisition: A field reaching its potential,” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 34: 15–36.Google Scholar

Moyer, A. 2004. Age, Accent and Experience in Second Language Acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar

Müller, N., Kupisch, T., Schmitz, K., and Cantone, K. 2009. Einführung in die Mehrsprachigkeitsforschung: Deutsch, Französisch, Italienisch. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar

O’Brien, M. G. 2004. “Pronunciation Matters,” Die Unterrichtspraxis 37: 1–9.Google Scholar

Parodi, T. 2000. “Finiteness and verb placement in second language acquisition,” Second Language Research 16: 355–381.Google Scholar

Phillips, C. and Ehrenhofer, E. 2015. “The role of language processing in language acquisition,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5: 409–453.Google Scholar

Pienemann, M. 1998. Language Processing and Second Language Development: Processability Theory. Amsterdam andPhiladelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Pienemann, M. (ed.) 2005. Cross-Linguistic Aspects of Processability Theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Pienemann, M. and Håkansson, G. 2007. “Full transfer vs. developmentally moderated transfer: A reply to Bohnacker,” Second Language Research 23: 485–493.Google Scholar

Rizzi, L. and Roberts, I. 1989. “Complex inversion in French,” Probus 1: 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sabourin, L. and Stowe, L. 2008. “Second language processing: When are first and second languages processed similarly?” Second Language Research 24: 397–430.Google Scholar

Sabourin, L., Stowe, L., and de Haan, G. 2006. “Transfer effects in learning a second language grammatical gender system,” Second Language Research 22: 1–29.Google Scholar

Salamoura, A. and Williams, J. 2007. “The representation of grammatical gender in the bilingual lexicon: Evidence from Greek and German,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10: 257–275.Google Scholar

Scherag, A., Demuth, L., Rösler, F., Neville, H., and Röder, B. 2004. “The effects of late acquisition of L2 and the consequences of immigration on L1 for semantic and morpho-syntactic language aspects,” Cognition 93: B97–B108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schimke, S. 2011. “Variable verb-placement in second language German and French: Evidence from production and elicited imitation of finite and nonfinite negated sentences,” Applied Psycholinguistics 32: 635–685.Google Scholar

Schimke, S. and Hopp, H. (eds.) 2018. Sprachverarbeitung im Zweitspracherwerb. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schlesewsky, M., Fanselow, G., Kliegl, R., and Krems, J. 2000. “The subject preference in the processing of locally ambiguous wh-questions in German.” In Hemforth, B. and Konieczny, L. (eds.), German Sentence Processing. Dordrecht: Kluwer: 65–93.Google Scholar

Schriefers, H., Friederici, A. and Kühn, K. 1995. “The processing of locally ambiguous relative clauses in German,” Journal of Memory and Language 34: 499–520.Google Scholar

Schwartz, B. and Sprouse, R. 1994. “Word order and nominative case in non-native language acquisition: A longitudinal study of (L1 Turkish) German interlanguage.” In Hoekstra, T. and Schwartz, B. (eds.), Language Acquisition Studies in Honor of Kenneth Wexler from the 1991 GLOW Workshops. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins: 317–368.Google Scholar

Schwartz, B. and Sprouse, R. 1996. “L2 cognitive states and the Full Transfer/Full Access model,” Second Language Research 12: 40–72.Google Scholar

Szagun, G., Stumper, B., Sondag, N., and Franik, M. 2007. “The acquisition of gender marking by young German-speaking children: Evidence for learning guided by phonological regularities,” Journal of Child Language 34: 445–471.Google Scholar

Ullmann, M. 2005. “A cognitive neuroscience perspective on second language acquisition: The declarative/procedural model.” In Sanz, C. (ed.), Mind and Context in Adult Second Language Acquisition: Methods, Theory, and Practice. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press: 141–178.Google Scholar

Unsworth, S. 2016. “Early child L2 acquisition: Age or input effects? Neither, or both?” Journal of Child Language 43: 603–634.Google Scholar

Vainikka, A. and Young-Scholten, M. 1996a. “The early stages in adult L2 syntax: Additional evidence from Romance speakers,” Second Language Research 12: 140–176.Google Scholar

Vainikka, A. and Young-Scholten, M. 1996b. “Gradual development of L2 phrase structure,” Second Language Research 12: 7–39.Google Scholar

Vainikka, A. and Young-Scholten, M. 2011. The Acquisition of German: Introducing Organic Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Verhagen, J. 2011. “Verb placement in second language acquisition: Experimental evidence for the different behavior of auxiliary and lexical verbs,” Applied Psycholinguistics 32: 821–858.Google Scholar

Wegener, H. 2000. “German gender in children’s second language acquisition.” In Unterbeck, B., Rissanen, M., Nevalainen, T., and Saari, M. (eds.), Gender in Grammar and Cognition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 511–544.Google Scholar

White, L. 2003. Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Aarsæther, F. 2010. “The use of multiethnic youth language in Oslo.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 111–126.Google Scholar

Aasheim, S. 1995. Kebab-norsk: fremmedspråklig påvirkning på ungdomsspråket i Oslo. [Kebab Norwegian: Influence of foreign languages on the youth language in Oslo.] M.A.thesis, University of Oslo.Google Scholar

Agha, A. 2007. Language and Social Relations. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Androutsopoulos, J. 2009. “Language and the three spheres of hip-hop discourse.” In Ibrahim, A., Alim, H. S., and Pennycook, A. (eds.), Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop Cultures, Identities and the Politics of Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 43–62.Google Scholar

Androutsopoulos, J. 2010. “Ideologizing ethnolectal German.” In Johnson, S. and Milani, T. M. (eds.), Language Ideologies and Media Discourse: Texts, Practices and Politics. New York: Continuum: 182–202.Google Scholar

Appel, R. and Muysken, P. 1987. Language Contact and Bilingualism. New York: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar

Appel, R. and Schoonen, R. 2005. “Street language: A multicultural youth register in the Netherlands,” Journal of multilingual and multicultural development 26.2: 85–117.Google Scholar

Auer, P. and Dirim, İ. 2003. “Socio-cultural orientation, urban youth styles and the spontaneous acquisition of Turkish by non-Turkish adolescents in Germany.” In Androutsopoulos, J. and Georgakopoulou, A. (eds.), Discourse Constructions of Youth Identities. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins: 223–246.Google Scholar

Bijvoet, E. 2003. “Attitudes towards ‘Rinkeby Swedish’, a group variety among adolescents in multilingual suburbs.” In Fraurud, K. and Hyltenstam, K. (eds), Multilingualism in Global and Local Perspectives. Stockholm: Centre for Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm University, and Rinkeby Institute of Multilingual Research: 307–318.Google Scholar

Bijvoet, E. and Fraurud, K. 2008. “Svenskan i dagens flerspråkiga storstadsmiljöer: en explorativ studie av unga stockholmares perceptioner av variation och varieteter” [Swedish spoken in today’s multilingual cities: An explorative study of young Stockholmers’ perceptions of variation and varieties], Nordand 3.2: 7–38.Google Scholar

Bijvoet, E. and Fraurud, K. 2010. “‘Rinkeby Swedish’ in the mind of the beholder. Studying listener perceptions of language variation in multilingual Stockholm.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 170–188.Google Scholar

Blackledge, A. and Creese, A. 2015. “Emblems of identities in four European urban settings.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 167–182.Google Scholar

Bodén, P. 2010. “Pronunciation in Swedish multiethnolect”, in Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 65–78.Google Scholar

Boyd, S. 2010. “Research on Language in Multilingual Urban Settings in Sweden.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 1–5.Google Scholar

Cheshire, J., Kerswill, P., Fox, S., and Torgersen, E. 2011. “Contact, the feature pool and the speech community: The emergence of Multicultural London English,” Journal of Sociolinguistics 15.2: 151–196.Google Scholar

Christensen, M. V. 2010. “One of My Kind? Language and Ethnicity among Danish Adolescents.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 207–224.Google Scholar

Christensen, M. V. 2012. 8220, 8210. Sproglig variation blandt unge i multietniske områder i Aarhus [8220, 8210. Linguistic Variation among Youth in Multiethnic Areas in Aarhus]. Ph.D. thesis, Aarhus University.Google Scholar

Clyne, M. 2000. “Lingua franca and ethnolects in Europe and beyond.” Sociolinguistica, 14: 83–89.Google Scholar

Cornips, L. 2002. “Etnisch Nederlands.” In Bennis, H., Extra, G., Muysken, P., and Nortier, J. (eds.), Een buurt in beweging. Talen en Culturen in het Utrechtse Lombok en Transvaal [A Neighbourhood on the Move. Languages and Cultures in Lombok and Transvaal, Utrecht]. Amsterdam: Aksant: 285–302.Google Scholar

Cornips, L., Jaspers, J., and de Rooij, V. 2015. “The Politics of Labelling Youth Vernaculars in the Netherlands and Belgium.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 45–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cutler, C. and Røyneland, U. 2015. “Where the fuck am I from? Hip-Hop youth and the (re)negotiation of language and identity in Norway and the US.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 139–163.Google Scholar

Dorleijn, M., Mous, M., and Nortier, J. 2015. “Urban youth speech styles in Kenya and the Netherlands.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 271–289.Google Scholar

Eckert, P. 2004. ”The meaning of style”. www.stanford.edu/eckert/PDF/salsa2003.pdf.Google Scholar

Ekberg, L. 2010. “Extended uses of sån ‘such’ among adolescents in a multilingual context.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 17–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ekberg, L., Opsahl, T., and Wiese, H. 2015. “Functional gains: A cross-linguistic case study on three particles in Swedish, Norwegian and German.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 93–115.Google Scholar

Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Freywald, U., Ganuza, N., Opsahl, T., and Cornips, L. 2015. “Beyond verb second – A matter of novel information structural effects? Evidence from Norwegian, Swedish, German and Dutch.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 73–92.Google Scholar

Ganuza, N. 2008. Syntactic Variation in the Swedish of Adolescents in Multilingual Urban Settings: Subject-Verb Order in Declaratives, Questions and Subordinate Clauses. Ph.D. thesis, University of Stockholm.Google Scholar

Ganuza, N. 2010. “Subject-verb order variation in the Swedish of young people in multilingual urban areas.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 31–48.Google Scholar

Giles, H., Hewstone, M., and Ball, P. 1983. “Language attitudes in multilingual settings: Prologue with priorities,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 4.2–3: 81–100.Google Scholar

Grønnum, N. 1998. Fonetik og Fonologi. Almen og Dansk. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.Google Scholar

Haglund, C. 2010. “Transnational identifications among adolescents in suburban Sweden.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 96–110.Google Scholar

Hansen, G. F. and Pharao, N. 2010. “Prosody in Copenhagen Multiethnolect.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 79–95.Google Scholar

Hinnenkamp, V. 2003. “Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity.” In Jørgensen, J. N. (ed.), Bilingualism and Social Relations: Turkish Speakers in North-West Europe. Bristol: Multilingual Matters: 12–41.Google Scholar

Ibrahim, A., Alim, H. S., and Pennycook, A. (eds.) 2009. Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop Cultures, Identities and the Politics of Language. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar

Ims, I. 2013. ”Språklig registerdanning og verditilskriving: Betegnelser på nye måter å snakke norsk på i Oslo” [Enregisterment and valorisation: Labeling new ways of speaking Norwegian] NOA: Tidsskrift for Norsk som andrespråk, 1. 37–71.Google Scholar

Ims, I. 2014. “Alle snakker norsk. Språkiidedogiog språklig differensiering i mediene” [Everybody speaks Norwegian. Language idedogy and language differentiation in the media] NOA: Tidsskrift for Norsk som andrespråk, 30.1: 5–40.Google Scholar

Jørgensen, J. N. 2010. Languaging: Nine Years of Poly-Lingual Development of Young Turkish-Danish Grade School Students. Copenhagen: Københavnerstudier i tosprogethed.Google Scholar

Jørgensen, J. N. and Quist, P. 2001. ”Native speakers’ judgements of second language Danish,” Language Awareness 10.1: 41–56.Google Scholar

Källström, R. 2010. “Literary use of multiethnic youth language. Noninversion in Swedish fiction.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 142–155.Google Scholar

Källström, R. and Lindberg, I. (eds.) 2011. Young Urban Swedish. Variation and Change in Multilingual Settings. University of Gothenburg: Göteborgsstudier i Nordisk språkvetenskap 14. Website: http://hdl.handle.net/2077/26570 (last accessed October 26, 2017).Google Scholar

Kern, F. and Selting, M. 2011. Ethnic Styles of Speaking in European Metropolitan Areas. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Kiesling, S. F. 2005. “Variation, style, and stance: Word-final -er and ethnicity in Australian English,” English World Wide 26: 1–42.Google Scholar

Kiessling, R. and Mous, M. 2004. “Urban youth languages in Africa.” Anthropological Linguistics 46.3: 303–341.Google Scholar

Knudsen, J. S. 2010. “‘Playing with words as if it was a rap game’: Hip-hop street language in Oslo.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 156–169.Google Scholar

Kotsinas, U.-B. 1988. “Immigrant children’s Swedish – A new variety?,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9.2: 129–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kotsinas, U.-B. 2000. “Språkkontakt og slangspråk i Stockholm.” [Language contact and slang in Stockholm] In Stenström, A.-B., Kotsinas, U.-B., and Drange, E.-M. (eds.), Ungdommers språkmøter. Copenhagen: Nordisk Ministerråd: 19–60.Google Scholar

Kristiansen, T. 1997. “Language attitudes in a Danish cinema.” In Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook. London: Macmillan Press Ltd: 291–305.Google Scholar

Kristiansen, T. (ed.) 2006. Nordiske sprogholdninger: En masketest [Nordic language attitudes: A matched guise test]. Oslo: Novus forlag. Moderne importord i språka i Norden, Vol. 5.Google Scholar

Kristiansen, T. 2010. “Attitudes, ideology and awareness.” In Wodak, R., Johnston, B., and Kerswill, P. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Thousand Oaks: Sage: 265–278.Google Scholar

Kristiansen, T., Coupland, N., and Garrett, P. 2005. “Introducing subjectivities in language variation and change,” Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 37: 9–35.Google Scholar

Kulbrandstad, L. A. 2004. “‘Kebabnorsk’, ‘perkerdansk’ og ‘gebrokken’ – ord om innvandreres måte å snakke majoritetsspråket på” [‘Kebab-Norwegian’, ‘perker Danish’ and ‘broken’ – labels on ways of speaking the majority language]. In Sandøy, H. (ed.), Den fleirspråklege utfordringa. Oslo: Novus: 108–130.Google Scholar

Ladegaard, H. J. 2001. “Popular perceptions of standard language: attitudes to ‘regional standards’ in Denmark,” Language Awareness 10.1: 25–40.Google Scholar

Lambert, W. E., Hudgson, R. C., Gardner, R. C., and Fillenbaum, S. 1960. “Evaluational Reactions to Spoken Languages,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 60.1: 44–51.Google Scholar

Lund, K. 1997. Lærer alle dansk på samme måde?En længdeundersøgelse af voksnes tilegnelse af dansk som andetsprog. Herning: Special-pædagogisk forlag.Google Scholar

Madsen, L. M. 2008. Fighters and Outsiders: Linguistic Practices, Social Identities, and Social Relationships among Urban Youth in a Martial Arts Club. Ph.D. thesis, University of Copenhagen.Google Scholar

Madsen, L. M. 2011. “Social status relations and enregisterment in contemporary Copenhagen,” Working Papers in Urban Language and Literacies 72. King’s College London.Google Scholar

Madsen, L. M. 2013. “ ‘High’ and ‘low’ in urban Danish speech styles,” Language in Society 42: 115–138.Google Scholar

Madsen, L. M. and Svendsen, B. A. 2015. ”Stylized voices of ethnicity and social division.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 207–229.Google Scholar

Maegaard, M. 2010. “Linguistic practice and stereotypes among Copenhagen adolescents.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 189–206.Google Scholar

Magnusson, J. E. 2015. “‘Självklart känns det mer tryggt att vara där inne i huset’ – om den sociokulturella kontextens betydelse för språkliga repertoarer och identiteter” [The impact of the sociocultural context on linguistic repertoires and identities], Nordand – Nordisk tidsskrift for andrespråksforskning 10.1:7–28.Google Scholar

Marzo, S. and Ceuleers, E. 2011. “The use of Citétaal among adolescents in Limburg. The role of space appropriation in language variation and change,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 32: 451–60.Google Scholar

Milani, T. 2010. “What’s in a name? Language ideology and social differentiation in a Swedish print-mediated debate,” Journal of Sociolinguistics 14: 116–142.Google Scholar

Milani, T., Jonsson, R., and Mhlambi, I. J. (2015). “Shooting the subversive: When non-normative linguistic practices go mainstream in the media.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 119–138.Google Scholar

Møller, J. S. 2009. ”Stereotyping categorisations of speech styles among linguistic minority Danes in Køge.” In Maegaard, M., Gregersen, F., Quist, P., and Jørgensen, J. N. (eds.), Language Attitudes, Standardization and Language Change. Oslo: Novus: 231–254.Google Scholar

Møller, J. S. 2010. “Polylingualism in the steak house: Exploring linguistic practices in late modern Copenhagen.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 127–141.Google Scholar

Nortier, J. 2001. Murks en Straataal [Murks and street Language]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.Google Scholar

Nortier, J. and Svendsen, B. A. 2015. Language, Youth and Identity in the 21st Century: Linguistic Practices across Urban Spaces. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Opsahl, T. 2009a. “Egentlig alle kan bidra!” – en samling sosiolingvistiske studier av strukturelle trekk ved norsk i multietniske ungdomsmiljøer i Oslo. [Actually everybody may contribute. A collection of sociolinguistic studies of structural features associated with Norwegian as spoken among adolescents in multiethnic areas in Oslo.] Ph.D. thesis, University of Oslo.Google Scholar

Opsahl, T. 2009b. “Wolla I swear this is typical for the conversational style of adolescents in multiethnic areas in Oslo.” In Gregersen, F. and Røyneland, U. (eds.), Special issue of Nordic Journal of Linguistics. Sociolinguistics 32.2: 221–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Opsahl, T. and Nistov, I. 2010. “On some structural aspects of Norwegian spoken among adolescents in multilingual settings in Oslo.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 49–64.Google Scholar

Pharao, N., Maegaard, M., Møller, J. S., and Kristiansen, T. 2014. “Indexical meanings of [s+] among Copenhagen youth: Social perception of a phonetic variant in different prosodic contexts,” Language in Society 43.1: 1–32.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2000. “Ny københavnsk ‘multietnolekt’. Om sprogbrug blandt unge i sprogligt og kulturelt heterogene miljøer” [New Copenhagen ‘multiethnolect’. Language use among young people in linguistically and culturally heterogeneous settings], Danske Talesprog 1: 143–212.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2008. “Sociolinguistic approaches to multiethnolect: Language variety and stylistic practice,” International Journal of Bilingualism 12: 43–61.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2009. “Multietnolekt – del af stilistiske praksisser i storbyen [Multiethnolect – part of stylistic practices in the cities].” In NyS. Nydanske Studier og Almen Kommunikationsteori 37: 10–33.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2012. Stilistisk Praksis [Stylistic Practice]. København: Museum Tusculanum.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2015. “Konstruktion af ‘perkerdansk’ og danskhed i online debatter om multietnisk ungdomsstil,” Danske Talesprog 15: 173–192.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2016. “Representations of multi-ethnic youth styles in Danish broadcast media.” In Coupland, N., Thøgersen, N. J., and Mortensen, J. (eds.), Style, Media and Language Ideologies. Oslo: Novus: 217–234.Google Scholar

Quist, P. 2018. “Alternative place naming in the diverse margins of an ideologically mono-lingual society.” In Cornips, L. and de Rooij, V. (eds.), The Sociolinguistics of Place and Belonging: Perspectives from the Margins. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 239–259.Google Scholar

Quist, P. and Svendsen, B. A. (eds.) 2010. Multilingual Urban Scandinavia: New Linguistic Practices. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar

Quist, P. and Svendsen, B. A. 2015. “MultiNord 2007–2015: Et nettverk for forskning om språk i heterogene byrom – empiriske og teoretiske hovedlinjer” [MultiNorth 2007–2015: A network on research on language in heterogeneous urban spaces – empirical and theoretical main approaches]. NOA – Tidsskrift for norsk andrespråksforskning, 1–2: 151–194.Google Scholar

Rampton, B. 2006. Language in Late Modernity: Interaction in an Urban School. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Rampton, B. 2015. “Contemporary urban vernaculars.” In J. Nortier and B. A. Svendsen (eds.): 24–45.Google Scholar

Silverstein, M. 1985. “Language and the culture of gender.” In Mertz, E. and Parmentier, R. J. (eds.), Semiotic Mediation. New York: Academic Press: 219–259.Google Scholar

Sollid, H. 2013. “Ethnolects in Northern Norway: From national negligence to local linguistic pride.” In Siemund, P., Gogolin, I., Schulz, M. E., and Davydova, J. (eds.), Multilingualism and Language Diversity in Urban Areas. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 63–94.Google Scholar

Statistics Sweden, Norway and Denmark 2017. http://www.scb.se/en/, https://www.ssb.no/en/, http://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik, last accessed October 21, 2017.Google Scholar

Stjernholm, K. 2012. Stedet velger ikke lenger deg, du velger et sted. Tre artikler om språk i Oslo [You are no longer Chosen by a Place, you Choose a Place. Three Articles on Language in Oslo]. Ph.D. thesis, University of Oslo.Google Scholar

Stroud, C. 2004. “Rinkeby Swedish and semilingualism in language ideology debates: A Bourdieuan perspective,” Journal of Sociolinguistics 8.2: 196–214.Google Scholar

Stæhr, A. 2010. Rappen reddede os. Et studie af senmoderne storbydrenges identitetsarbejde i fritids- og skolemiljøer [Rap saved us. A study of late modern urban boys’ identity work in leisure and school environments]. University of Copenhagen: Copenhagen Studies in Bilingualism, Vol. 54.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. 2010. “Linguistic Practices in Multilingual Urban Contexts in Norway: An Overview.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): 12–16.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. 2014. “Kebabnorskdebatten. En språkideologisk kamp om sosial identitet og verdier” [Social identities and values in the debate on ‘Kebab-Norwegian’ – an ideological battlefield], Norsk tidsskrift for ungdomsforskning 1: 33–62.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. 2015. “Language, youth and identity in the 21st century: Content and continuations.” In Nortier and Svendsen (eds.): 1–23.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. and Røyneland, U. 2008. “Multiethnolectal facts and functions in Oslo, Norway,” International Journal of Bilingualism 12: 63–83.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. and Quist, P. 2010. “Introduction.” In Quist and Svendsen (eds.): xiii–xxiii.Google Scholar

Svendsen, B. A. and Marzo, S. 2015. “A ‘new’ speech style is born: The omnipresence of structure and agency in the life of semiotic registers in heterogeneous urban spaces,” European Journal of Applied Linguistics 3.1: 47–85.Google Scholar

Wiese, H. 2011. “The role of information structure in linguistic variation: evidence from a German multiethnolect.” In Gregersen, F., Parrott, J., and Quist, P. (eds.), Language Variation – European Perspectives III. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 83–95.Google Scholar

Wiese, H. 2012. Kiezdeutsch: Ein Neuer Dialekt Entsteht. München: C. H. Beck.Google Scholar

Althaus, H. P., Henne, H., and Wiegand, H. E. (eds.) 1980. Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik, 2nd edn. (Studienausgabe). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.Google Scholar

Becker, D. A. 1967. Generative Phonology and Dialect Study: An Investigation of Three Modern German Dialects. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar

Besch, W. and Knoop, U. 1982. Dialektologie: Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Brachin, P. The Dutch Language: A Survey. Paul Vincent (trans.). Leiden: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar

Donaldson, B. C. 1983. Dutch: A Linguistic History of Holland and Belgium. Leiden: Marinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar

Elspaß, S. and Möller, R. 2003ff. Atlas zur deutschen Alltagssprache (AdA). Open-Access Publication. www.atlas-alltagssprache.de.Google Scholar

Grimm, J. 1819. Deutsche Grammatik. 1. edn. Göttingen: Dieter’sche Buchhandlung.Google Scholar

Keller, R. E. 1961. German Dialects: Phonology and Morphology, with Selected Texts. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar

Knipf-Komlósi, E. and Berend, N. (eds.) 2001. Regionale Standards: SprachVariationen in den deutschsprachigen Ländern. Budapest: Dialóg Campus Kiadó.Google Scholar

König, W. 2007. Dtv-Atlas: Deutsche Sprache, 16. edn. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.Google Scholar

Markey, T. L. 1982. “Afrikaans: Creole or Non-Creole?” Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 49(2): 169–207.Google Scholar

Munske, H. H. (ed.) 2001. Handbuch des Friesischen / Handbook of Frisian Studies. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.Google Scholar

Prokosch, E. 1917. “Die deutsche Lautverschiebung und die Völkerwanderung,” Journal of English and Germanic Philology 16: 1–21.Google Scholar

Rijpma, E. and Schuringa, F. G. 1972. Nederlandse sprachkunst. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.Google Scholar

Russ, C. V. J. (ed.) 1989. The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Salmons, J. 2012. A History of German: What the Past Reveals about Today’s Language. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Schirmunski, V. M. 2010. Deutsche Mundartkunde: Vergleichende Laut- und Formenlehre der deutschen Mundarten. Naiditch, L. (ed.), Fleischer, W., (trans.). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Google Scholar

Schützeichel, R. 1976. Die Grundlagen des westlichen Mitteldeutschen: Studien zur historischen Sprachgeographie. Tübingen: Niemeyer.Google Scholar

Shrier, M. 1965. “Case systems in German dialects,” Language 41: 420–38.Google Scholar

Sonderegger, S. 1979. Grundzüge deutscher Sprachgeschichte: Diachronie des Sprachsystems. Band 1: Einführung—Genealogie—Konstanten. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Speyer, A. 2010. Deutsche Sprachgeschichte. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.Google Scholar

Sprechender Sprachatlas von Bayern. www.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de/sprachatlasGoogle Scholar

Sprechender Sprachatlas von Bayrisch-Schwaben. www.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de/sprachatlas-schwabenGoogle Scholar

Sturtevant, E. H. 1917. Linguistic Change: An Introduction to the Historical Study of Language. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Wiesinger, P. 1970. Phonetisch-phonologische Untersuchungen zur Vokalentwicklung in den deutschen Dialekten. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Wiesinger, P. 1980. “‘Sprache’, ‘Dialekt’, und ‘Mundart’ als sachliches und terminologisches Problem.” In Göschel, J., Ivic, P., and Kehr, K. (eds.), Dialekt und Dialektologie: Ergebnisse des internationalen Symposions “Zur Theorie des Dialekts.” Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag: 177–194.Google Scholar

Wiesinger, P. and Raffin, E. 1982. Bibliographie zur Grammatik der deutschen Dialekte. Laut-, Formen-, Wortbildungs- und Satzlehre. 1800–1980. Bern and Frankfurt am Main. Supplemental volume, 1987.Google Scholar

Árnason, K. 2004. “Island – landet uden dialekter.” In I. S. Sletten (ed.), Nordens sprog med rødder og fødder. Nord, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen K, https://doi.org/10.6027/Nord2004-010.Google Scholar

Árnason, K. 2005. Íslensk tunga, Vol. 1: Hljóð. Handbók um hljoðfræði og hljoðkerfisfræði [Icelandic Language, Vol. 1: Sounds. Handbook of Phonetics and Phonology]. Reykjavík: Almenna bókafélagið.Google Scholar

Bandle, O. 1973. Die Gliederung des Nordgermanischen (Beiträge zur nordischen Philologie 1). Basel and Stuttgart: Helbing & Lichtenhahn.Google Scholar

Barnes, M. and Weyhe, E. 1994. “Faroese.” In König, E. and van der Auwera, J. (eds.), The Germanic Languages. London and New York: Routledge: 190–218.Google Scholar

Bø, I. 1978. Ungdom og naboland. En undersøkelse av skolens og fjernsynets betydning for nabospråksforståelsen. [Youth and neighbouring country. An investigation of the influence of school and TV on inter-Scandinavian comprehension.] Stavanger: Rogalandsforskning.Google Scholar

Börestam Uhlmann, U. 1991. Språkmöten och mötesspråk i Norden. [Language meetings and meeting languages in the Nordic countries.] Nordisk språksekretariats rapporter 16. Oslo: Nordisk språksekretariat.Google Scholar

Braunmüller, K. 1996. “Forms of language contact in the area of the Hanseatic League: dialect contact phenomena and semicommunication,” Nordic Journal of Linguistics 19: 141–154.Google Scholar

Braunmüller, K. 2007. “Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario.” In ten Thije, J. D. and Zeevaert, L. (eds.), Receptive Multilingualism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 25–47.Google Scholar

Brink, L. and Lund, J. 1975. Dansk rigsmål: lydudviklingen siden 1840 med særligt henblik på sociolekterne i København. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar

Chambers, J. K. and Trudgill, P. 1998. Dialectology, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Dahl, Ö. and Edlund, L.-E. (eds.) 2010. Språken i Sverige. [The languages of Sweden]. 1. utg. Sveriges nationalatlas. Stockholm: Norstedts.Google Scholar

Delsing, L.-O. and Åkesson, K. Lundin 2005. Håller språket ihop Norden? En forskningsrapport om ungdomars förståelse av danska, svenska och norska. [Does the language keep together the Nordic countries? A research report of mutual comprehension between young speakers of Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian.] Copenhagen: Nordiska ministerrådet.Google Scholar

Dialekt.dk 2016. dialekt.ku.dk/dialekter/dialektgraenser/.Google Scholar

Edlund, L.-E. 2010. “Mapping the North Germanic languages.” In Lameli, A., Kehrein, R., and Rabanus, S. (eds.), Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 203–243.Google Scholar

Education Act 2014. www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/education-act/id213315/.Google Scholar

Elert, C.-C. 1994. “Indelning och gränser inom området för den talade svenskan: en aktuell dialektgeografi.” In Edlund, L.-E. (ed.), Kulturgränser – myt eller verklighet? DIABAS, Vol. 4. Institutionen för nordiska språk, University of Umeå: 215–228.Google Scholar

Eriksson, A. 2004. “SweDia 2000: A Swedish dialect database.” In Henrichsen, P. J. (ed.), Babylonian Confusion Resolved. Proc. Nordic Symposium on the Comparison of Spoken Languages. Copenhagen Working Papers in LSP: 33–48.Google Scholar

Faarlund, J. T. 1994. “Old and Middle Scandinavian.” In König, E. and van der Auwera, J. (eds.), The Germanic Languages. London and New York: Routledge: 38–71.Google Scholar

Golubović, J. 2016. Mutual Intelligibility in the Slavic Language Area. Groningen: Center for Language and Cognition.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. 2005. “Traveling time as a predictor of linguistic distance,” Dialectologia et Geolinguistica 13: 38–62.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. 2006. “Linguistic and extra-linguistic predictors of Inter-Scandinavian intelligibility.” In van de Weijer, J. and Los, B. (eds.), Linguistics in the Netherlands, Vol. 23. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 101–113.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. 2007. “The contribution of linguistic factors to the intelligibility of closely related languages,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 28.6: 445–467.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. and Heeringa, W. 2004. “Perceptive evaluation of Levenshtein dialect distance measurements using Norwegian dialect data,” Language Variation and Change 16.3: 189‒207.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. and Heeringa, W. 2005. “De moderne norske dialekters stilling indenfor den nordiske sprogfamilie.” In Lie, S., Nedrelid, G., and Omdal, H. (eds.), MONS 10. Utvalde artiklar frå det tiande Møte om norsk språk i Kristiansand 2003. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget: 133–146.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. and Heeringa, W. 2014. “The role of dialect exposure in receptive multilingualism,” Applied Linguistics Review 5.1: 247–271.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C. and Heeringa, W. in preparation. Linguistic distances between Germanic, Romance and Slavic languages.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C., Heeringa, W., and Beijering, K. 2008. “Phonetic and lexical predictors of intelligibility,” International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 2.1–2: 63–81.Google Scholar

Gooskens, C., van Heuven, V. J., Golubović, J., Schüppert, A., Swarte, F., and Voigt, S. 2018. “Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe,” International Journal of Multilingual Communication, 15.2: 169–193.Google Scholar

Goossens, J. 1977. Inleiding tot de Nederlandse dialectologie [Introduction to Dutch dialectology]. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.Google Scholar

Grin, F. 2008. “L’intercompréhension, efficience et équité.” In Conti, V. and Grin, F. (eds.), S’entendre entre langues voisines: vers l’intercompréhension. Chêne-Bourg: Georg: 79–109.Google Scholar

Grønnum, N. 1998. Fonetik og fonologi. Almen og dansk. Copenhagen: Akademisk forlag.Google Scholar

Haugen, E. 1953. “Nordiske språkproblemer – en opinionsundersökelse. [Nordic language problems – a poll],” Nordisk tidskrift för vetenskap, konst och industry 29: 225–249.Google Scholar

Haugen, E. 1966. “Semicommunication – The Language Gap in Scandinavia,” Sociological Inquiry 36: 280–297.Google Scholar

Hedquist, R. 1985. Nederländares förståelse av danska och svenska. En språkpedagogisk undersökning med utnyttjande av likheterna mellan språken. [Dutchmen’s understanding of Danish and Swedish. A language pedagogical investigation with the use of similarities between the languages.] Umeå: Umeå universitet. Institutionerna för fonetik och nordiska språk.Google Scholar

Heeringa, W., Swarte, F., Schüppert, A., and Gooskens, C. 2018. “Measuring syntactical variation in Germanic texts,” Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 33.2: 279–296.Google Scholar

Johannessen, J. B., Priestley, J., Hagen, K., Åfarli, T. A., and Vangsnes, Ø. A. 2009. “The Nordic Dialect Corpus – an advanced research tool.” In Jokinen, K. and Eckhard, B. (eds.), Proceedings of the 17th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics NODALIDA 2009. NEALT Proceedings Series, Vol. 4: 73–78.Google Scholar

Kloss, H. 1967. “‘Abstand languages’ and ‘ausbau languages’,” Anthropological Linguistics 9.7: 29–41.Google Scholar

Kürschner, S., Gooskens, C., and van Bezooijen, R. 2008. “Linguistic determinants of the intelligibility of Swedish words among Danes.” International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 2.1–2: 83–100.Google Scholar

Kvaran, G. 2005. Orð: handbók um beygingar- og orðmyndunarfræði. Reykjavík: Almenna bókafélagið.Google Scholar

Leinonen, T. 2010. An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Pronunciation in Swedish Dialects. Ph.D. thesis, University of Groningen.Google Scholar

Lüdi, G. 2007. “The Swiss model of plurilingual communication.” In Bührig, K. and ten Thije, J. D. (eds.), Beyond Misunderstanding: Linguistic Analyses of Intercultural Communication. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins: 159–178.Google Scholar

Maurud, Ø. 1976. “Reciprocal comprehension of neighbour languages in Scandinavia: An investigation of how well people in Denmark, Norway and Sweden understand each other’s languages,” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 20: 49–71.Google Scholar

Nerbonne, J., Heeringa, W, van den Hout, E., van de Kooi, P., Otten, S., and van de Vis, W 1996. “Phonetic distance between Dutch Dialects.” In Durieux, G., Daelemans, W., and Gillis, S. (eds.), Proceedings of Computer Linguistics in the Netherlands ’95. Antwerpen: Centre for Dutch Language and Speech (UIA): 185–202.Google Scholar

Nerbonne, J. and Heeringa, W. 2010. “Measuring dialect differences.” In Schmidt, J. E. and Auer, P. (eds.), Language and Space: Theories and Methods. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 550–567.Google Scholar

Nielsen, B. J. and Pedersen, K. M. 1991. Danske talesprog. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar

Nordic Language Convention 1987. https://www.norden.org/en/avtal/nordic-language-convention.Google Scholar

Nyborg, L. 2004. “Farvel til dialekterne i Danmark.” In Sletten, I. S. (ed.), Nordens sprog med rødder og fødder. http://eplads.norden.org/nordenssprak/kap5/5c.asp.Google Scholar

Ottosson, K. 2002. “Old Nordic: A definition and delimitation of the period.” In Bandle, O., Braunmüller, K., Jahr, E. H., Karker, A., Naumann, H-P., and Teleman, U. (eds.), The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter: 787–793.Google Scholar

Pedersen, I. L. 2000. “Fra dialekt til multietnolekt.” In Kristiansen, T. and Køster, F. (ed.), Danske Talesprog, Vol. 1: 5–29.Google Scholar

Rehbein, J., ten Thije, J. D., and Verschik, A. 2012. “Lingua receptiva (LaRa) – remarks on the quintessence of receptive multilingualism,” International Journal of Bilingualism 16.3: 248–264.Google Scholar

Ringgaard, K. 2002. “General history of Nordic dislectology.” In Bandle, O., Braunmüller, K., Jahr, E. H., Karker, A., Naumann, H.-P., and Teleman, U. (eds.), The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter: 272–282.Google Scholar

Sandøy, H. 1996. Talemål, 2nd edn. Oslo: Novus Forlag.Google Scholar

Schmidt, J. 1872. Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar: H. Böhlau.Google Scholar

Schüppert, A. 2011. Origin of Asymmetry: Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Danish and Swedish. Groningen: Center for Language and Cognition.Google Scholar

Schüppert, A., Hilton, N. H., and Gooskens, C 2016. “Why is Danish so difficult to understand for fellow Scandinavians?” Speech Communication 79: 47–60.Google Scholar

Skjekkeland, M. 2005. Dialektar i Noreg: Tradisjon og fornying [Dialects in Norway: Tradition and Modernization]. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget,Google Scholar

Södergård, L. and Leinonen, T. 2017. “Talko – korpus över den talade svenskan i Finland: Korpusbygge i teori och praktik.” In J.-O. Östman, C. Sandström, P. Gustavsson, and L. Södergård (eds), Ideologi, identitet, intervention: Nordisk dialektologi 10: 331–340. Helsingfors: Finska, finskugriska och nordiska institutionen vid Helsingfors universitet.Google Scholar

Språkinstitutet 2016. www.sprakinstitutet.fi/sv/ordbocker/dialektordbocker/ordbok_over_finlands_svenska_folkmal/karta_over_dialektomraden.Google Scholar

Ten Thije, J. D. 2017. “Receptive multilingualism.” In Singleton, D. (ed.), Twelve Lectures on Multilingualism. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar

Thráinsson, H. 1994. “Icelandic.” In König, E. and van der Auwera, J. (eds.), The Germanic Languages. London and New York: Routledge: 142–189.Google Scholar

Thráinsson, H. and Árnason, K. (1992). “Phonological variation in 20th century Icelandic,” Íslenskt mál 14: 89–128.Google Scholar

Thráinsson, H., Heycock, C. B., Petersen, P., and Hansen, Z. S. (eds.) 2017. Syntactic Variation in Insular Scandinavian. Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar

Thráinsson, H., Petersen, H. P., Jacobsen, J. í L., and Z. Svabo, Hansen 2004. Faeroese: An Overview and Reference Grammar. Tórshavn: Føroya Fróðskaparfelag.Google Scholar

Torp, A. 1982. Norsk og nordisk før og nå [Norwegian and North Germanic past and present]. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Google Scholar

Torp, A. 1998. Nordiske språk i nordisk og germansk perspektiv. Oslo: Novus.Google Scholar

Torp, A. 2002. “The Nordic languages in a Germanic perspective.” In Bandle, O., Braunmüller, K., Jahr, E. H., Karker, A., Naumann, H.-P., and Teleman, U (eds.), The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter: 13–24.Google Scholar

Trudgill, P. 1986. Dialects in Contact. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar

Trudgill, P. 2000. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Venås, K. 2002. “Previous attempts at establishing periods in Nordic language history.” In Bandle, O., Braunmüller, K., Jahr, E. H., Karker, A., Naumann, H-P., and Teleman, U. (eds.), The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter: 31–38.Google Scholar

Wentzel, M-L. 2004. “Får du tala ditt eget språk?” In I. S. Sletten (ed.), Nordens sprog med rødder og fødder. Nord, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen K, http://doi.org/10.6027/Nord2004-010.Google Scholar

Wessén, E. 1969. Våra folkmål, 9th edn. Stockholm: Fritzes [first published in 1935].Google Scholar

Åfarli, T. A. 2012. “Hybride verbformer i amerikanorsk og analyse av tempus,” Norsk Lingvistisk Tidsskrift: 381–398.Google Scholar

Aissen, J. 2003. “Differential object marking: iconicity versus economy,” Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 21: 438–485.Google Scholar

Anderssen, M. and Westergaard, M. 2017. Crosslinguistic Similarities and Differences in Bilingual Acquisition and Attrition: Possessives and Double Definiteness in Norwegian Heritage Language. Ms., University of Tromsø.Google Scholar

Annear, L. and Speth, K. 2015. “Maintaining a multilingual repertoire: Lexical change in American Norwegian.” In Johannessen, J. B. and Salmons, J. (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 201–216.Google Scholar

Arnbjörnsdóttir, B. 2006. North American Icelandic: The Life of a Language. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.Google Scholar

Bayram, F., y Cabo, D. Pascual, and Rothman, J. 2019. “Cross-generational attrition contributions to heritage speaker competence.” In Köpke, B. and Schmid, M. S. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Language Attrition. Oxford University Press: 446–457.Google Scholar

Berend, N. and Jedig, H. (eds.) 1991. Deutsche Mundarten in der Sowjetunion: Geschichte der Forschung und Bibliographie. Marburg: N. G. Elwert Verlag.Google Scholar

Bialystok, E. 2016. “Aging and bilingualism: Why does it matter?” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6.1/2: 1–8.Google Scholar

Boas, H. 2009. The Death of Texas German. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Bossong, G. 1985. Empirische Universalienforschung: Differentielle Objektmarkierung in der Neuiranischen Sprachen. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar

Bossong, G. 1991. “Differential object marking in Romance and beyond.” In Wanner, D. and Kibbee, D. (eds.), New Analyses in Romance Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 143–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blumenfeld, H. K., Schroeder, S. R., Bobb, S. C., Freeman, M. R., and Marian, V. 2016. “Auditory word recognition across the lifespan: Links between linguistic and nonlinguistic inhibitory control in bilinguals and monolinguals,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6.1/2: 119–146.Google Scholar

Clyne, M. 2003. Dynamics of Language Contact: English and Immigrant Languages. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Clyne, M. and Cain, H. 2000. “Trilingualism in related languages – Dutch-German-English near and far.” In Hirschfelder, G., Schnell, D., and Schrutka-Rechtenstamm, A. (eds.), Kulturen – Sprachen – Übergänge. Festschrift für H.L. Cox zum 65. Geburtstag. Cologne: Boehlau: 135–152.Google Scholar

Cole, P., Hermon, G., and Sung, L.-M. 1990. “Principles and parameters of long-distance reflexives,” Linguistic Inquiry 21: 1–22.Google Scholar

Cook, V. 1997. “Monolingual bias in second language acquisition research,” Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses 34: 35–50.Google Scholar

Duus, O. F. 1855–1858 [1958]. “Frontier Parsonage: The letters of Olaus Fredrik Duus. Norwegian Pastor in Wisconsin, 1855–1858. NAHA, Northfield 1947.” In Blegen, I. and Theodore, C. (eds.), Amerikabrev. Oslo: H. Aschehoug & Co.Google Scholar

Eide, K. M. and Arnstein, H. 2015. “Verb second and finiteness morphology in Norwegian heritage language of the American Midwest.” In R. Page, B. and Putnam, M.T. (eds.), Leiden: Brill: 64–101.Google Scholar

Fitch, G. W. 2011. “Changes in frequency as a measure of language change: Extraposition in Pennsylvania German.” In Putnam, M. T. (ed.), Studies on German-Language Islands. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 371–384.Google Scholar

Flaten, Ns. 1901. “Notes on American-Norwegian with a Vocabulary.” Dialect Notes, Vol. 2.Google Scholar

Flom, G. T. 1901. “English Elements in Norse Dialects of Utica, Wisconsin.” Dialect Notes, Vol. 2, 1900–1904.Google Scholar

Flom, G. T. 1926. “English loanwords in American Norwegian. As spoken in the Koshkonong settlement, Wisconsin,” American Speech 1: 541–558.Google Scholar

Fuller, J. 1997. Pennsylvania Dutch with a Southern Touch: A Theoretical Model of Language Contact and Change. Ph.D. dissertation, University of South Carolina-Columbia.Google Scholar

Geiger, S. and Salmons, J. 2006. “Reconstructing variation at shallow time depths: The historical phonetics of 19th century German dialects in the U.S.” In Cravens, T. (ed.), Variation and Reconstruction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 37–58.Google Scholar

Grimstad, M. B., Lohndal, T., and Åfarli, T. A. 2014. “Language mixing and exoskeletal theory: A case study of word-internal mixing in American Norwegian,” Nordlyd 41.2: 213–237.Google Scholar

Gross, S. 2005. “Attrition and typological change.” Presentation, 2nd International Conference on First Language Attrition. Vrije Universitet Amsterdam.Google Scholar

Gürel, A. 2002. Linguistic Characteristics of Second Language Acquisition and First Language Attrition: Turkish overt versus null pronouns. Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University.Google Scholar

Gürel, A. 2004. “Selectivity in L2-induced attrition: A psycholinguistic account,” Journal of Neurolinguistics 17: 53–78.Google Scholar

Gürel, A. 2007. “(Psycho)linguistic determinants of L1 attrition.” In Köpke, B., Schmid, M., Keijzer, M., and Dosterst, S. (eds.), Language Attrition: Theoretical Perspectives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 99–120.Google Scholar

Haugen, E. 1953. The Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual Behavior. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

Håkansson, G. 1995. “Syntax and morphology in language attrition: A study of five bilingual expatriate Swedes,” International Journal of Applied Linguistics 5: 153–171.Google Scholar

Hjelde, A. 1992. Trøndsk talemål i Amerika. Trondheim: Tapir.Google Scholar

Hjelde, A. 2015. “Changes in a Norwegian dialect in America.” In Johannessen and Salmons (eds.): 283–298.Google Scholar

Hjelde, A. and Johannessen, J. B. 2017. “Amerikanorsk: Orda vitner om kontakt mellom folk.” In Hasle Joranger, T. M. and Cleven, H. T. (eds.), Norwegian-American Essays 2017. Oslo: Novus: 257–282.Google Scholar

Hopp, H. and Putnam, M. T. 2015. “Restructuring in heritage grammar: Word order variation in heritage German,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5.2: 180–203.Google Scholar

Huffines, M. L. 1989. “Case usages among the Pennsylvania German sectarians and nonsectarians.” In Dorian, N. C. (ed.), Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death. Cambridge University Press: 211–226.Google Scholar

Ivanova, I., Murillo, M., Montoya, R. I., and Gollan, T. H. 2016. “Does bilingual language control decline in older age?” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6.1/2: 86–118.Google Scholar

Jakobson, R. 1941. Kindersprache, Aphasie, und allgemeine Lautgesetze. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar

Johannessen, J. B. 2015a. “The Corpus of American Norwegian Speech (CANS).” In B. Megyesi (ed.), Proceedings of the 20th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics, NODALIDA 2015, May 11–13, 2015, Vilnius, Lithuania. NEALT Proceedings Series 23.Google Scholar

Johannessen, J. B. 2015b. “Attrition in an American Norwegian heritage language speaker.” In Johannessen, J. B. and Salmons, J. C. (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 46–71.Google Scholar

Johannessen, J. B. 2018. “Factors of variation, maintenance and change in heritage languages,” International Journal of Bilingualism 22.4: 447–465.Google Scholar

Johannessen, L. J. B. and Larsson, I. 2015. “Complexity matters: On gender agreement in heritage Scandinavian,” Frontiers in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01842.Google Scholar

Johannessen, J. B. and Salmons, J. C. (eds.) 2015. Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Johnson, C. D. 1994. The Volga-German Dialect of Schoenchen, Kansas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas.Google Scholar

Judy, T., Putnam, M. T., and Rothman, J. 2018. “When bilingualism is the common factor: Switch reference at the junction of competence and performance in both Second Language and Heritage Language performance,” Journal of Language Contact 11.3: 592–618.Google Scholar

Keel, W. D. 1994. “Reduction and loss of case marking in the noun phrase in German-American speech islands: Internal development or external influence?” In Berend, N. and Mattheier, K. (eds.), Sprachinselforschung: eine Gedenkschrift für Hugo Jedig. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag: 93—104.Google Scholar

Keel, W. D. 2015. “Noun phrase case shift in Volga German varieties on the Great Plains of Kansas.” In Page, B. R. and Putnam, M. T. (eds.), Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill: 133–153.Google Scholar

Keijzer, M. C. J. 2007. First In Last Out? An Investigation of the Regression Hypothesis in Dutch Emigrants in Anglophone Canada. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Utrecht.Google Scholar

Keijzer, M. C. J. 2010. First Language Acquisition and First Language Attrition: Parallels and Divergences. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishers.Google Scholar

Keijzer, M.C. J. and Schmid, M. S 2016. “Individual differences in cognitive control advantages of late Dutch-English bilinguals,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6.1/2: 64–85.Google Scholar

Khramova, M. 2011. The Volga German Dialect of Milberger, Kansas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas.Google Scholar

Kim, J-H., Montrul, S., and Yoon, J. 2009. “Binding interpretation of anaphors by Korean heritage speakers,” Language Acquisition 16: 3–35.Google Scholar

Kupisch, T. 2014. “Adjective placement in simultaneous bilinguals (German-Italian) and the concept of cross-linguistic overcorrection,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 17: 222–233.Google Scholar

Kupisch, T. and Rothman, J. 2018. “Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers,” International Journal of Bilingualism 22.5: 564–582.Google Scholar

Larsson, I. and Johannessen, J. B. 2015a. “Incomplete acquisition and verb placement in heritage Scandinavian.” In R. Page, B. and Putnam, M. T. (eds.), Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill: 153–189.Google Scholar

Larsson, I. and Johannessen, J. B. 2015b. “Embedded word order in Heritage Scandinavian.” In Hilpert, M., Östman, J-O, Mertzlufft, C., and Rießler, M (eds.), New Trends in Nordic and General Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter: 239–266.Google Scholar

Lohndal, T. and Westergaard, M. 2016. “Grammatical gender in American Norwegian Heritage Language: Stability or attrition?” Frontiers in Psycholology, 7: 344.Google Scholar

Louden, M. L. 1988. Bilingualism and Syntactic Change in Pennsylvania German. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University.Google Scholar

Louden, M. L. 2006. “Pennsylvania German in the twenty-first century.” In Berend, N. and Knipf-Komlósi, E. (eds.), Sprachinsel weltweit – The world of language islands. Berlin: Peter Lang Verlag: 89–107.Google Scholar

Louden, M. L. 2016. Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Mironow, S. A. 1957. “Zur vergleichenden Formenlehre der deutschen Mundarten,” Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 79 (supplemental volume): 388–414.Google Scholar

Montrul, S. 2008. Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: Re-examining the Age Factor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Montrul, S. 2015. The Acquisition of Heritage Languages. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Øverland, O. and Kjærheim, S. (eds.) 1992. Fra Amerika til Norge. I norske utvandrerbrev 1838–57. Bind 1. Oslo: Solum.Google Scholar

Page, B. R. and Putnam, M. T. (eds.) 2015. Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar

Pascual y Cabo, D. and Rothman, J.. 2012. “The (il)logical problem of heritage speaker bilingualism and incomplete acquisition,” Applied Linguistics 33: 450–455.Google Scholar

Perez-Cortes, S. 2016. Acquiring Obligatory and Variable Mood Selection: Spanish Heritage Speakers and L2 Learners’ Performance in Desideratives and Reported Speech Contexts. Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University.Google Scholar

Pires, A. and Rothman, J. 2009. “Disentangling sources of incomplete acquisition: An explanation for competence divergence across heritage grammars,” International Journal of Bilingualism 13: 211–238.Google Scholar

Polinsky, M. 2006. “Incomplete acquisition: American Russian,” Journal of Slavic Linguistics 14: 191–262.Google Scholar

Polinsky, M. 2011. “Reanalysis in adult heritage language,” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 33: 305–328.Google Scholar

Putnam, M. T. (ed.). 2011. Studies on German-Language Islands. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Putnam, M. T. and Sánchez, L. 2013. “What’s so incomplete about incomplete acquisition? A prolegomenon to modeling heritage language grammars,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 3.4: 478–508.Google Scholar

Putnam, M. T. and Arnbjörnsdóttir, B. 2015. “Minimizing (interface) domains: The loss of long-distance binding in North American Icelandic.” In Page, B. R. and Putnam, M. T. (eds.), Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill: 203–223.Google Scholar

Putnam, M. T., Kupisch, T., and Pascual y Cabo, D. 2018. “Different situations, similar outcomes: Heritage grammars across the lifespan.” In Bayram, F., Denhovska, N., Miller, D., Rothman, J., and Serratrice, L. (eds.), Bilingualism: The State of the Science Across Its Subfields. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 251–279.Google Scholar

Riksem, B. R. 2018. “Language mixing in American Norwegian noun phrases,” Journal of Language Contact 11.3: 481–524.Google Scholar

Rødvand, L-I. S. 2017. Empirical Investigations of Grammatical Gender in American Heritage Norwegian. M.A. thesis, University of Oslo: Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies.Google Scholar

Rosenberg, P. 2003. “Comparative speech island research: Some results from studies in Russia and Brazil.” In Keel, W. D. and Mattheier, K. J. (eds.), Deutsche Sprachinseln weltweit. Interne und externe Perspektiven/German language varieties worldwide. Internal and external perspectives. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag: 199–238.Google Scholar

Rossi, E. and Diaz, M. 2016. “How aging and bilingualism influence language processing,” Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6.1/2: 9–42.Google Scholar

Rothman, J. 2007. “Heritage speaker competence differences, language change and input type: Inflected infinitives in heritage Brazilian Portuguese,” International Journal of Bilingualism 11: 359–389.Google Scholar

Shirer, M. 1965. “Case systems in German dialects,” Language 413: 420–438.Google Scholar

Stolberg, D. 2014. Changes Between the Lines: Diachronic Contact Phenomena in Written Pennsylvania German (Studia Linguistica Germanica). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Taranrød, B. 2011. Leddstillingen i relativsetninger i amerikansknorsk. M.A. thesis. University of Oslo: Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies.Google Scholar

Thráinsson, H. 2007. The Syntax of Icelandic. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Vikner, S. 1995. Verb Movement and Expletive Subjects in the Germanic Languages. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Westergaard, M. and Anderssen, M. 2015. “Word order variation in Norwegian possessive constructions: Bilingual acquisition and attrition.” In J. B. Johannessen and J. C. Salmons (eds.): 21–45.Google Scholar

Yager, L. 2016. Morphosyntactic Variation and Change in Wisconsin Heritage German. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar

Yager, L., Hellmold, N., Joo, H-A., Putnam, M. T., Rossi, E., Stafford, C., and Salmons, J. 2015. “New structural patterns in moribund grammar: Case marking in heritage German,” Frontiers in Psychology 6: 1716.Google Scholar

Altenhofen, C. V. 1996. Hunsrückisch im Rio Grande do Sul. Ein Beitrag zur Beschreibung einer deutschbrasilianischen Dialektvarietät im Kontakt mit dem Portugiesischen. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.Google Scholar

Ammon, U. 2015. Die Stellung der deutschen Sprache in der Welt. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Bidese, E. 2004. “Die Zimbern und ihre Sprache: geographische, historische und sprachwissenschaftlich relevante Aspekte.” In Stolz, T. (ed.), Kolloquium über Alte Sprachen und Sprachstufen. Beiträge zum Bremer Kolloquium über “Alte Sprachen und Sprachstufen” (Diversitas Linguarum 8). Bochum: Brockmeyer: 3–42.Google Scholar

Da Rin, D. 1997. Das Deutsche in der Colonia Tovar (Venezuela). Munich: LINCOM Europa.Google Scholar

Deumert, A. 2004. Language Standardization and Language Change: The Dynamics of Cape Dutch. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Edwards, J. 1992. “Sociopolitical aspects of language maintenance and loss: towards a typology of ethnic minority language situations.” In Fase, W., Jaspaert, K., and Kroon, S. (eds.), Maintenance and Loss of Ethnic Minority Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 37–54.Google Scholar

Edwards, J. 2004. “Language minorities.” In Davies, A. and Elder, C. (eds.), The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell: 451–475.Google Scholar

Extra, G., and Gorter, D. (eds.), 2001. The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar

Fleischer, J., and Louden, M. L.. 2011. “Das Amish Swiss German im nordöstlichen Indiana: eine alemannisch-pfälzische Mischmundart.” In Christen, H., Germann, S., Haas, W., Montefiori, N., and Ruef, H. (eds.), Alemannische Dialektologie: Wege in die Zukunft (ZDL-Beiheft 141). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner: 231–244.Google Scholar

Gorter, D., Riemersma, A., and Ytsma, J. 2001. “The Frisian language in the Netherlands.” In Extra and Gorter (eds.), pp. 103–118.Google Scholar

Hinderling, R., and Eichinger, L. M. (eds.). 1996. Handbuch der mitteleuropäischen Sprachminderheiten. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.Google Scholar

Humpa, G. J. 1996. Retention and Loss of Bernese Alemannic Traits in an Indiana Amish Dialect: A Comparative Historical Study. Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University.Google Scholar

Isaacs, M. 1999. “Haredi, haymish, and frim: Yiddish vitality and language choice in a transnational multilingual community.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 138: 9–30.Google Scholar

Jacobs, N. G. 2005. Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Katz, D. 2007. Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar

Krahn, C., Bender, H. S., and Friesen, J. J 1989. “Migrations.” In Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encylopedia Online. Retrieved 16 January 2017. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Migrations&oldid=143668.Google Scholar

Kraybill, D. B., Nolt, S. M., and Burge, E. Jr. 2017. “Language use among Anabaptist groups.” In Bronner, S. J. and Brown, J. R (eds.), Pennsylvania Germans: An Interpretive Encyclopedia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 108–130.Google Scholar

Lasatowicz, M. and Weger, T.. 2008. “Polen.” In Eichinger, L., Plewnia, A, and Riehl, C. M. (eds.), Handbuch der deutschen Sprachminderheiten in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Tübingen: Gunter Narr: 145–169.Google Scholar

Lorenz-Andreasch, H. 2004. “Mir sein jå kolla Teitschverderber” Die Sprache der Schmiedeleut-Hutterer in Manitoba/Kanada. Wien: Edition Praesens.Google Scholar

Louden, M. L. 2016. Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Moelleken, W. W. 1987. “Die rußlanddeutschen Mennoniten in Kanada und Mexiko: Sprachliche Entwicklung und diglossische Situation,” Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 54: 145–183.Google Scholar

Moelleken, W. W. 1992. “The development of the linguistic repertoire of the Mennonites from Russia.” In Burridge, K and Enninger, W. (eds.), Diachronic Studies on the Languages of the Anabaptists. Bochum: Universitätsverlag D. N. Brockmeyer: 64–93.Google Scholar

Namibia 2011 Population and Housing Census Main Report. https://web.archive.org/web/20131002064316/ http://www.nsa.org.na/files/downloads/Namibia%202011%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf.Google Scholar

Østern, A. 2001. “Swedish in Finland.” In Extra and Gorter (eds.): 159–173.Google Scholar

Östman, J.-O., and Mattfolk, L. 2011. “Ideologies of standardisation: Finland Swedish and Swedish-language Finland.” In Kristiansen, T. and Coupland, N. (eds.), Standard Languages and Language Standards in a Changing Europe. Oslo: Novus: 75–82.Google Scholar

Pauwels, A. 2016. Language Maintenance and Shift. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pedersen, K. M. 1996. “Die deutsche Minderheit in Dänemark.” In Hinderling and Eichinger (eds.): 31–59.Google Scholar

Pedersen, K. M. 2000. “A national minority with a transethnic identity – the German minority in Denmark.” In Wolff, S. (ed.), German Minorities in Europe: Ethnic Identity and Cultural Belonging. New York: Berghahn: 15–28.Google Scholar

Pedersen, K. M. 2002. Dansk sprog i Sydslesvig. Aabenraa: Institut for Grænseregionsforskning.Google Scholar

Rein, K. 1977. Religiöse Minderheiten als Sprachgemeinschaftsmodelle. Deutsche Sprachinseln täuferischen Ursprungs in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. ZDL Beihefte, Neue Folge, Nr. 15. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.Google Scholar

Roberge, P. T. 2002. “Afrikaans: considering origins.” In Mesthrie, R. (ed.), Language in South Africa. Cambridge University Press: 79–103.Google Scholar

Rosenberg, P. 1998. “Deutsche Minderheiten in Lateinamerika.” In Harden, T. and Hentschel, E (eds.), Particulae particularum. Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Harald Weydt. Tübingen: Stauffenburg: 261–291.Google Scholar

Rowley, A. 1996. “Die Sprachinseln der Fersentaler und Zimbern.” In Hinderling and Eichinger (eds.): 263–285.Google Scholar

Scottish Government Social Research 2010. Public attitudes towards the Scots language. Accessible at http://www.gov.scot/Resource/Doc/298037/0092859.pdf.Google Scholar

Siemens, H. 2012. Plautdietsch. Grammatik, Geschichte, Perspektiven. Bonn: tweeback verlag.Google Scholar

Simons, G. F., and Fennig, C. D. (eds.) 2017. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 20th edn. Dallas: SIL International. www.ethnologue.comGoogle Scholar

Søndergaard, B. 1981. “The fight for survival: Danish as a living minority language south of the German border.” In Haugen, E., McClure, J. D., and Thomson, D. (eds.), Minority Languages Today. Edinburgh University Press: 138–143.Google Scholar

Steffen, J., and Altenhofen, C. V. 2014. “Spracharchipele des Deutschen in Lateinamerika: Dynamik der Sprachvernetzungen im mehrsprachigen Raum,” Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 81: 34–60.Google Scholar

Thompson, C. 1994. “The languages of the Amish of Allen County, Indiana: multilingualism and convergence,” Anthropological Linguistics 36: 69–91.Google Scholar

Waal, C. S. van der 2012. “Creolisation and purity: Afrikaans language politics in post-apartheid times,” African Studies 71: 446–463.Google Scholar

White, P. 1987. “Geographical aspects of minority language situations in Italy.” Unpublished paper presented at the International Seminar on Geolinguistics, Stoke-on-Trent.Google Scholar

Wicherkiewicz, T. 2003. The Making of a Language: The Case of the Idiom of Wilamowice, Southern Poland. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Zach, K. 2013. Das Älvdalische – Sprache oder Dialekt? M.A. thesis, University of Vienna.Google Scholar

Aboh, E. and DeGraff, M. 2016. “A null theory of creole formation based on Universal Grammar.” In Roberts, I. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Universal Grammar. Oxford University Press: 401–458.Google Scholar

Alleyne, M. C. 1980. Comparative Afro-American: An Historical-Comparative Study of English-Based Afro-American Dialects of the New World. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar

Ansaldo, U., Matthews, S., and Smith, G. 2010. “China Coast Pidgin: Texts and contexts,” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 25: 63–94.Google Scholar

Arends, J. 2017. Language and Slavery: A Social and Linguistic History of the Suriname Creoles. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar

Baker, P. 1987. “Historical developments in Chinese Pidgin English and the nature of the relationships between the various pidgin Englishes of the Pacific region,” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2:163–207.Google Scholar

Baker, P. 1998. “Investigating the origin and diffusion of shared features among the Atlantic English creoles.” In Baker, P. and Bruyn, A. (eds.), St. Kitts and the Atlantic Creoles: The Texts of Samuel Augustus Mathews in Perspective. London: University of Westminster Press: 315–364.Google Scholar

Baker, P. 2000. “Theories of creolization and the degree and nature of restructuring.” In Neumann-Holzschuh, I. and Schneider, E. W. (eds.), Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 41–63.Google Scholar

Baker, P. 2001. “No creolization without prior pidginization?” Te Reo 44: 31–50.Google Scholar

Baker, P. and Huber, M. 2001. “Atlantic, Pacific, and world-wide features in English-lexicon contact languages,” English World-Wide 22: 157–208.Google Scholar

Bakker, P. 1989. “A French-Icelandic nautical pidgin,” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 4: 129–132.Google Scholar

Bakker, P. 2008. “Pidgins versus creoles and pidgincreoles.” In Kouwenberg and Singler (eds.): 130–157.Google Scholar